Heterogeneity in the Co-occurrence of Substance Use and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Latent Class Analysis Approach

References

• Anderson, R. E., Hruska, B., Boros, A. P., Richardson, C. J., & Delahanty, D. L. (2018). Patterns of co-occurring addictions, posttraumatic stress disorder, and major depressive disorder in detoxification treatment seekers: Implications for improving detoxification treatment outcomes. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 86, 45–51. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2017.12.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2014). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Three-step approaches using Mplus. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 21, 329–341. doi:10.1080/10705511.2014.915181
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babor, T. F., & Caetano, R. (2006). Subtypes of substance dependence and abuse: Implications for diagnostic classification and empirical research. Addiction, 101, 104–110. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01595.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, T. B., Piper, M. E., McCarthy, D. E., Majeskie, M. R., & Fiore, M. C. (2004). Addiction motivation reformulated: An affective processing model of negative reinforcement. Psychological Review, 111(1), 33–55. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.111.1.33
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonde, J. P., Utzon-Frank, N., Bertelsen, M., Borritz, M., Eller, N. H., Nordentoft, M., … Rugulies, R. (2016). Risk of depressive disorder following disasters and military deployment: Systematic review with meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 208(4), 330–336. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.114.157859
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley, K. A., Bush, K. R., Epler, A. J., Dobie, D. J., Davis, T. M., Sporleder, J. L., … Kivlahan, D. R. (2003). Two brief alcohol-screening tests from the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT): Validation in a female Veterans Affairs patient population. Archives of Internal Medicine, 163(7), 821–829. doi:10.1001/archinte.163.7.821
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brady, K. L., Back, S. E., & Coffey, S. F. (2004). Substance abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(5), 206–209. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00309.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brady, K., T., Killeen, T., K., Brewerton, T., & Lucerini, S. (2000). Comorbidity of psychiatric disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61, 22–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brady, K. T., Killeen, T., Saladin, M. E., Dansky, B., & Becker, S. (1994). Comorbid substance abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal on Addictions, 3, 160–164. doi:10.1111/j.1521-0391.1994.tb00383.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, P. J., Stout, R. L., & Mueller, T. (1999). Substance use disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder comorbidity: Addiction and psychiatric treatment rates. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 13(2), 115–122. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.13.2.115
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bush, K., Kivlahan, D. R., McDonell, M. B., Fihn, S. D., Bradley, K. A., & Ambulatory Care Quality Improvement Project (ACQUIP). (1998). The AUDIT Alcohol Consumption Questions (AUDIT-C). An effective brief screening test for problem drinking. Archives of Internal Medicine, 158(16), 1789–1795. doi:10.1001/archinte.158.16.1789
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buss, A. H., & Perry, M. (1992). The Aggression Questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(3), 452–459. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.452
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson, R. G., Wang, J., Falck, R. S., & Siegal, H. A. (2005). Drug use practices among MDMA/ecstasy users in Ohio: A latent class analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 79(2), 167–179. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2005.01.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavanaugh, C., Campbell, J., & Messing, J. T. (2014). A longitudinal study of the impact of cumulative violence victimization on comorbid posttraumatic stress and depression among female nurses and nursing personnel. Workplace Health and Safety, 62, 224–232. doi:10.3928/21650799-20140514-01
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chermack, S. T., Murray, R. L., Walton, M. A., Booth, B. A., Wryobeck, J., & Blow, F. C. (2008). Partner aggression among men and women in substance use disorder treatment: Correlates of psychological and physical aggression and injury. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 98(1–2), 35–44. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.04.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Connor, J. P., Gullo, M. J., White, A., & Kelly, A. B. (2014). Polysubstance use: Diagnostic challenges, patterns of use and health. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 27(4), 269–275. doi:10.1097/YCO.0000000000000069
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contractor, A. A., Armour, C., Shea, M. T., Mota, N., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2016). Latent profiles of DSM-5 PTSD symptoms and the "Big Five" personality traits. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 37, 10–20. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.10.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contractor, A. A., Armour, C., Wang, X., Forbes, D., & Elhai, J. D. (2015). The mediating role of anger in the relationship between PTSD symptoms and impulsivity. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 7(2), 138–145. doi:10.1037/a0037112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contractor, A. A., Caldas, S., Fletcher, S., Shea, M. T., & Armour, C. (2018). Empirically-derived lifespan polytraumatization typologies: A systematic review. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74(7), 1137–1159. doi:10.1002/jclp.22586
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contractor, A. A., Caldas, S., Weiss, N. H., & Armour, C. (2018). Examination of the heterogeneity in PTSD and impulsivity facets: A latent profile analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 125, 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.12.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contractor, A. A., Elhai, J. D., Fine, T. H., Tamburrino, M. B., Cohen, G., Shirley, E., … Calabrese, J. R. (2015). Latent profile analyses of posttraumatic stress disorder, depression and generalized anxiety disorder symptoms in trauma-exposed soldiers. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 68, 19–26. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.05.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contractor, A. A., Roley-Roberts, M. E., Lagdon, S., & Armour, C. (2017). Heterogeneity in patterns of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder and depression symptoms: Latent profile analyses. Journal of Affective Disorders, 212, 17–24. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.01.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contractor, A. A., Weiss, N. H., Dranger, P., Ruggero, C., & Armour, C. (2017). PTSD’s risky behavior criterion: Relation with DSM-5 PTSD symptom clusters and psychopathology. Psychiatry Research, 252, 215–222. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.03.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Contractor, A. A., Weiss, N. H., Kearns, N. T., Caldas, S., & Dixon-Gordon, K. (in review). Assessment of PTSD’s E2 Criterion: Development, Pilot Testing, and Validation of the Posttrauma Risky Behaviors Questionnaire. Manuscript submitted for publication.
   Google Scholar
• Cooper, M. L. (2002). Alcohol use and risky sexual behavior among college students and youth: Evaluating the evidence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, Supplement, 14, 101–117. doi:10.15288/jsas.2002.s14.101
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cranford, J. A., Krentzman, A. R., Mowbray, O., & Robinson, E. A. (2014). Trajectories of alcohol use over time among adults with alcohol dependence. Addictive Behaviors, 39(5), 1006–1011. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.02.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, J. F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1(1), 16–29. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.1.1.16
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Currie, S. R., Patten, S. B., Williams, J. V., Wang, J., Beck, C. A., El-Guebaly, N., & Maxwell, C. (2005). Comorbidity of major depression with substance use disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 50(10), 660–666.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darke, S., Duflou, J., Torok, M., & Prolov, T. (2013). Characteristics, circumstances and toxicology of sudden or unnatural deaths involving very high‐range alcohol concentrations. Addiction, 108(8), 1411–1417. doi:10.1111/add.12191
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiStefano, C., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2006). Investigating subtypes of child development: A comparison of cluster analysis and latent class cluster analysis in typology creation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(5), 778–794. doi:10.1177/0013164405284033
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erol, A., & Karpyak, V. M. (2015). Sex and gender-related differences in alcohol use and its consequences: Contemporary knowledge and future research considerations. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 156, 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.08.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fricker, R. D. (2008). Sampling methods for web and e-mail surveys. In N. G. Fielding, R. M. Lee, & G. Blank (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of online research methods. (pp. 195–216). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Galatzer-Levy, I. R., Nickerson, A., Litz, B. T., & Marmar, C. R. (2013). Patterns of lifetime PTSD comorbidity. A latent class analysis. Depression and Anxiety, 30(5), 489–496. doi:10.1002/da.22048
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant, S., Pedersen, E. R., & Neighbors, C. (2016). Associations of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms with marijuana and synthetic cannabis use among young adult US Veterans: A pilot investigation. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 77(3), 509–514. doi:10.15288/jsad.2016.77.509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall, D. H., & Queener, J. E. (2007). Self-medication hypothesis of substance use: Testing Khantzian's updated theory. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 39(2), 151–158. doi:10.1080/02791072.2007.10399873
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hambur, M. A., & Collins, F. S. (2010). The path to personalized medicine. New England Journal of Medicine, 363, 301–304. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1006304
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hien, D. A., Jiang, H., Campbell, A. N. C., Hu, M.-C., Miele, G. M., Cohen, L. R., … Nunes, E. V. (2010). Do treatment improvements in PTSD severity affect substance use outcomes? A secondary analysis from a randomized clinical trial in NIDA's Clinical Trials Network. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(1), 95–101. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09091261
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hruska, B., Irish, L. A., Pacella, M. L., Sledjeski, E. M., & Delahanty, D. L. (2014). PTSD symptom severity and psychiatric comorbidity in recent motor vehicle accident victims: A latent class analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28(7), 644–649. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.06.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Insel, T. R. (2014). The NIMH Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) Project: Precision medicine for psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(4), 395–397. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14020138
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, N., Denny, S., Sheridan, J., Fleming, T., Clark, T., Teevale, T., & Ameratunga, S. (2014). Predictors of drinking patterns in adolescence: A latent class analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 135, 133–139. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.11.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacob, T., Blonigen, D. M., Koenig, L. B., Wachsmuth, W., & Price, R. K. (2010). Course of alcohol dependence among Vietnam combat veterans and nonveteran controls. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 71(5), 629–639. doi:10.15288/jsad.2010.71.629
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson, I. G., Southwick, S. M., & Kosten, T. R. (2001). Substance use disorders in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder: A review of the literature. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1184–1190. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.8.1184
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakupcak, M., Conybeare, D., Phelps, L., Hunt, S., Holmes, H. A., Felker, B., … McFall, M. E. (2007). Anger, hostility, and aggression among Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans reporting PTSD and subthreshold PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20(6), 945–954. doi:10.1002/jts.20258
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jameson, J. L., & Longo, D. L. (2015). Precision medicine – personalized, problematic, and promising. New England Journal of Medicine, 372(23), 2229–2234. doi:10.1056/NEJMsb1503104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 617–627. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khantzian, E. J. (1997). The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: A reconsideration and recent applications. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 4, 231–244. doi:10.3109/10673229709030550
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khantzian, E. J. (1999). Treating addiction as a human process. Northvale, NJ: Library of Substance Abuse and Addiction Treatment, Jason Aronson.
   Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Milanak, M. E., Miller, M. W., Keyes, K. M., & Friedman, M. J. (2013). National estimates of exposure to traumatic events and PTSD prevalence using DSM‐IV and DSM‐5 criteria. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(5), 537–547. doi:10.1002/jts.21848
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kolehmainen, C., Stahr, A., Kaatz, A., Brennan, M., Vogelman, B., Cook, J., & Carnes, M. (2015). Post-code PTSD symptoms in internal medicine residents who participate in cardiopulmonary resuscitation events: A mixed methods study. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 7(3), 475–479. doi:10.4300/JGME-D-14-00424.1
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• König, I. R., Fuchs, O., Hansen, G., von Mutius, E., & Kopp, M. V. (2017). What is precision medicine? European Respiratory Journal, 50(4), 1–12. doi:10.1183/13993003.00391-2017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotov, R., Gamez, W., Schmidt, F., & Watson, D. (2010). Linking “big” personality traits to anxiety, depressive, and substance use disorders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(5), 768–821. doi:10.1037/a0020327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroenke, K., & Spitzer, R. L. (2002). The PHQ-9: A new depression diagnostic and severity measure. Psychiatric Annals, 32(9), 509–515. doi:10.3928/0048-5713-20020901-06
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001). The PHQ 9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9), 606–613. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lembke, A. (2012). Time to abandon the self-medication hypothesis in patients with psychiatric disorders. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 38(6), 524–529. doi:10.3109/00952990.2012.694532
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynskey, M. T., Agrawal, A., Bucholz, K. K., Nelson, E. C., Madden, P. A. F., Todorov, A. A., … Heath, A. C. (2006). Subtypes of illicit drug users: A latent class analysis of data from an Australian twin sample. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 9(4), 523–530. doi:10.1375/twin.9.4.523
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall-Berenz, E. C., Vujanovic, A. A., & MacPherson, L. (2011). Impulsivity and alcohol use coping motives in a trauma-exposed sample: The mediating role of distress tolerance. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(5), 588–592. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.11.033
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCauley, J. L., Killeen, T., Gros, D. F., Brady, K. T., & Back, S. E. (2012). Posttraumatic stress disorder and co-occurring substance use disorders: Advances in assessment and treatment. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 19, 283–304. doi:10.1111/cpsp.12006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCutcheon, A. L. (1987). Latent class analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• McGrath, S., & Ghersi, D. (2016). Building towards precision medicine: empowering medical professionals for the next revolution. BMC Medical Genomics, 9(23), doi:10.1186/s12920-016-0183-8
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McLeod, D. S., Koenen, K. C., Meyer, J. M., Lyons, M. J., Eisen, S., True, W., & Goldberg, J. (2001). Genetic and environmental influences on the relationship among combat exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and alcohol use. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(2), 259–275. doi:10.1023/A:1011157800050
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meade, A. W., & Craig, S. B. (2012). Identifying careless responses in survey data. Psychological Methods, 17(3), 437–455. doi:10.1037/a0028085
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mills, K. L., Teesson, M., Ross, J., & Peters, L. (2006). Trauma, PTSD, and substance use disorders: Findings from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(4), 652–658. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.652
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss, H. B., Goldstein, R. B., Chen, C. M., & Yi, H. Y. (2015). Patterns of use of other drugs among those with alcohol dependence: Associations with drinking behavior and psychopathology. Addictive Behaviors, 50, 192–198. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.06.041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mowbray, O., Glass, J. E., & Grinnell-Davis, C. L. (2015). Latent class analysis of alcohol treatment utilization patterns and 3-year alcohol related outcomes. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 54, 21–28. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2015.01.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Najavits, L. M., & Hien, D. (2013). Helping vulnerable populations: A comprehensive review of the treatment outcome literature on substance use disorder and PTSD. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(5), 433–479. doi:10.1002/jclp.21980
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nylund, K., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling, 14(4), 535–569. doi:10.1080/10705510701575396
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nylund, K., Bellmore, A., Nishina, A., & Graham, S. (2007). Subtypes, severity, and structural stability of peer victimization: What does latent class analysis say?. Child Development, 78(6), 1706–1722. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01097.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olatunji, B. O., Ciesielski, B. G., & Tolin, D. F. (2010). Fear and loathing: A meta-analytic review of the specificity of anger in PTSD. Behavior Therapy, 41(1), 93–105. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2009.01.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prins, A., Bovin, M. J., Kimerling, R., Kaloupek, D. G., Marx, B. P., Pless Kaiser, A., & Schnurr, P. P. (2015). The Primary Care PTSD Screen for DSM-5 (PC-PTSD-5). Instrument available from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov.
   Google Scholar
• Prins, A., Bovin, M. J., Smolenski, D. J., Marx, B. P., Kimerling, R., Jenkins-Guarnieri, M. A., … Tiet, Q. Q. (2016). The Primary Care PTSD Screen for DSM-5 (PC-PTSD-5): Development and evaluation within a veteran primary care sample. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 31(10), 1206–1211. doi:10.1007/s11606-016-3703-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prins, A., Ouimette, P., Kimerling, R., Camerond, R. P., Hugelshofer, D. S., Shaw-Hegwer, J., … Sheikh, J. I. (2003). The primary care PTSD screen (PC-PTSD): Development and operating characteristics. Primary Care Psychiatry, 9(1), 9–14. doi:10.1185/135525703125002360
   Google Scholar
• Raftery, A. E. (1995). Bayesian model selection in social research. Sociological Methodology, 25, 111–163. doi:10.2307/271063
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Read, J. P., Brown, P. J., & Kahler, C. W. (2004). Substance use and posttraumatic stress disorders: Symptom interplay and effects on outcome. Addictive Behaviors, 29(8), 1665–1672. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.02.061
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, N. P., Roberts, P. A., Jones, N., & Bisson, J. I. (2015). Psychological interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder and comorbid substance use disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 38, 25–38. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.02.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schuler, M. S., Puttaiah, S., Mojtabai, R., & Crum, R. M. (2015). Perceived barriers to treatment for alcohol problems: A latent class analysis. Psychiatric Services, 66(11), 1221–1228. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201400160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons, J. S., Gaher, R. M., Jacobs, G. A., Meyer, D., & Johnson-Jimenez, E. (2005). Associations between alcohol use and PTSD symptoms among American Red Cross disaster relief workers responding to the 9/11/2001 attacks. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 31(2), 285–304. doi:10.1081/ADA-47937
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skinner, H. A. (1982). The drug abuse screening test. Addictive Behaviors, 7(4), 363–371.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, S. H., Pihl, R. O., Conrod, P. J., & Dongier, M. (1998). Functional associations among trauma, PTSD, and substance-related disorders. Addictive Behaviors, 23(6), 797–812. doi:10.1016/S0306-4603(98)00070-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strander, V. A., Thomsen, C. J., & Highfill-McRoy, R. M. (2014). Etiology of depression comorbidity in combat-related PTSD: A review of the literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 34, 87–98. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.12.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swendsen, J. D., & Merikangas, K. R. (2000). The comorbidity of depression and substance use disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(2), 173–189. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00026-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, K. A., & Clifford, S. (2017). Validity and Mechanical Turk: An assessment of exclusion methods and interactive experiments. Computers in Human Behavior, 77, 184–197. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.038
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomczyk, S., Isensee, B., & Hanewinkel, R. (2016). Latent classes of polysubstance use among adolescents—a systematic review. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 160, 12–29. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.11.035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tull, M. T., Weiss, N. H., & McDermott, M. J. (2015). Posttraumatic stress disorder and impulsive and risky behavior: An overview and discussion of potential mechanisms. In C. R. Martin, V. R. Preedy, & V. B. Patel (Eds.), Comprehensive Guide to Post-traumatic Stress Disorders. (pp. 803–816). New York, NY.: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Vaidyanathan, U., Patrick, C. J., & Iacono, W. G. (2011). Patterns of comorbidity among mental disorders: A person-centered approach. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 52(5), 527–535. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2010.10.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughn, M. G., DeLisi, M., Gunter, T., Fu, Q., Beaver, K. M., Perron, B. E., & Howard, M. O. (2011). The severe 5%: A latent class analysis of the externalizing behavior spectrum in the United States. Journal of Criminal Justice, 39(1), 75–80. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.12.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vermeulen-Smit, E., Ten Have, M., Van Laar, M., & De Graaf, R. (2015). Clustering of health risk behaviours and the relationship with mental disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 171, 111–119. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.09.031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vermunt, J. K. (2010). Latent class modeling with covariates: Two improved three-step approaches. Political Analysis, 18(4), 450–469. doi:10.1093/pan/mpq025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallen, G. R., Park, J., Krumlauf, M., & Brooks, A. T. (2018). Identification of distinct latent classes related to sleep, PTSD, depression, and anxiety in individuals diagnosed with severe alcohol use disorder. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 1–10. doi:10.1080/15402002.2018.1425867
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Walther, B., Morgenstern, M., & Hanewinkel, R. (2012). Co-occurrence of addictive behaviours: Personality factors related to substance use, gambling and computer gaming. European Addiction Research, 18(4), 167–174. doi:10.1159/000335662
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Blake, D. D., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., Marx, B. P., & Keane, T. M. (2013a). The Life Events Checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5). Instrument available from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov.
   Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2013b). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). Scale available from the National Center for PTSD atwww.ptsd.va.gov.
   Google Scholar
• Weich, S., McBride, O., Hussey, D., Exeter, D., Brugha, T., & McManus, S. (2011). Latent class analysis of co-morbidity in the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey in England 2007: Implications for DSM-5 and ICD-11. Psychological Medicine, 41, 2201–2212. doi:10.1017/S0033291711000249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss, N. H., Tull, M. T., Sullivan, T. P., Dixon-Gordon, K. L., & Gratz, K. L. (2015). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and risky behaviors among trauma-exposed inpatients with substance dependence: The influence of negative and positive urgency. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 155, 147–153. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.07.679
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wortmann, J. H., Jordan, A. H., Weathers, F. W., Resick, P. A., Dondanville, K. A., Hall-Clark, B., … Litz, B. T. (2016). Psychometric analysis of the PTSD Checklist-5 (PCL-5) among treatment-seeking military service members. Psychological Assessment, 28(11), 1392–1403. doi:10.1037/pas0000260
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yudko, E., Lozhkina, O., & Fouts, A. (2007). A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the Drug Abuse Screening Test. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 32(2), 189–198. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2006.08.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar