Cannabis Use in Adolescence: A Review of Neuroimaging Findings

References

• Padula, C. B., Schweinsburg, A. D., & Tapert, S. F. (2007). Spatial working memory performance and fMRI activation interactions in abstinent adolescent marijuana users. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 21(4), 478–487. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.21.4.478
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdullaev, Y., Posner, M. I., Nunnally, R., & Dishion, T. J. (2010). Functional MRI evidence for inefficient attentional control in adolescent chronic cannabis abuse. Behavioural Brain Research, 215(1), 45–57. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2010.06.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Acheson, A., Ray, K. L., Hines, C. S., Li, K., Dawes, M. A., Mathias, C. W., … Laird, A. R. (2015). Functional activation and effective connectivity differences in adolescent marijuana users performing a simulated gambling task. Journal of Addiction, 2015, 1–11. doi:10.1155/2015/783106
   Google Scholar
• Anthony, J. C., & Petronis, K. R. (1995). Early-onset drug use and risk of later drug problems. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 40(1), 9–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnone, D., Barrick, T. R., Chengappa, S., Mackay, C. E., Clark, C. A., & Abou-Saleh, M. T. (2008). Corpus callosum damage in heavy marijuana use: Preliminary evidence from diffusion tensor tractography and tract-based spatial statistics. NeuroImage, 41(3), 1067–1074. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.02.064
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashtari, M., Avants, B., Cyckowski, L., Cervellione, K. L., Roofeh, D., Cook, P., … Kumra, S. (2011). Medial temporal structures and memory functions in adolescents with heavy cannabis use. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 45(8), 1055–1066. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.01.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashtari, M., Cervellione, K., Cottone, J., Ardekani, B. A., & Kumra, S. (2009). Diffusion abnormalities in adolescents and young adults with a history of heavy cannabis use. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43(3), 189–204. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.12.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Battistella, G., Fornari, E., Annoni, J.-M., Chtioui, H., Dao, K., Fabritius, M., … Giroud, C. (2014). Long-term effects of cannabis on brain structure. Neuropsychopharmacology, 39(9), 2041–2048. doi:10.1038/npp.2014.67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bava, S., Jacobus, J., Thayer, R. E., & Tapert, S. F. (2013). Longitudinal changes in white matter integrity among adolescent substance users. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 37(Suppl. 1), E181–189. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2012.01920.x
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Becker, B., Wagner, D., Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, E., Spuentrup, E., & Daumann, J. (2010). The impact of early-onset cannabis use on functional brain correlates of working memory. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 34(6), 837–845. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.03.032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker, M. P., Collins, P. F., Lim, K. O., Muetzel, R. L., & Luciana, M. (2015). Longitudinal changes in white matter microstructure after heavy cannabis use. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 16(5), 23–35. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.10.004
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Becker, M. P., Collins, P. F., Schultz, A., Urošević, S., Luciana, M., Becker, M. P., … Luciana, M. (2018). Longitudinal changes in cognition in young adult cannabis users. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 40(6), 529–543. doi:10.1080/13803395.2017.1385729
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Behan, B., Connolly, C. G., Datwani, S., Doucet, M., Ivanovic, J., Morioka, R., … Garavan, H. (2014). Response inhibition and elevated parietal-cerebellar correlations in chronic adolescent cannabis users. Neuropharmacology, 84, 131–137. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.05.027
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellis, M. D., De Wang, L., Bergman, S. R., Yaxley, R. H., Hooper, S. R., & Huettel, S. A. (2013). Neural mechanisms of risky decision-making and reward response in adolescent onset cannabis use disorder. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 133(1), 134–145. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.05.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belue, R. C., Howlett, A. C., Westlake, T. M., & Hutchings, D. E. (1995). The ontogeny of cannabinoid receptors in the brain of postnatal and aging rats. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 17(1), 25–30. doi:10.1016/0892-0362(94)00053-G
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bitter, S. M., Weber, W. A., Chu, W., Adler, C. M., Eliassen, J. C., Strakowski, S. M., & Delbello, M. P. (2014). N-acetyl aspartate levels in adolescents with bipolar and/or cannabis use disorders. Journal of Dual Diagnosis, 10(1), 39–43. doi:10.1080/15504263.2013.869077
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blest-Hopley, G., Giampietro, V., & Bhattacharyya, S. (2018). Residual effects of cannabis use in adolescent and adult brains — A meta-analysis of fMRI studies. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 88, 26–41. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.03.008
   Google Scholar
• Blest-Hopley, G., Giampietro, V., & Bhattacharyya, S. (2019). Regular cannabis use is associated with altered activation of central executive and default mode networks even after prolonged abstinence in adolescent users: Results from a complementary meta-analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 96, 45–55. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.10.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blithikioti, C., Miquel, L., Batalla, A., Rubio, B., Maffei, G., Herreros, I., … Balcells-Oliveró, M. (in press). Cerebellar alterations in cannabis users: A systematic review. Addiction Biology, 1–17. doi:10.1111/adb.12714
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloomfield, M. A. P., Hindocha, C., Green, S. F., Wall, M. B., Lees, R., Petrilli, K., … Freeman, T. P. (2019). The neuropsychopharmacology of cannabis: A review of human imaging studies. Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 195, 132–161. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.10.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brenhouse, H. C., & Andersen, S. L. (2011). Developmental trajectories during adolescence in males and females: A cross-species understanding of underlying brain changes. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(8), 1687–1703. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.04.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broyd, S. J., van Hell, H. H., Beale, C., Yücel, M., & Solowij, N. (2016). Acute and chronic effects of cannabinoids on human cognition—a systematic review. Biological Psychiatry, 79(7), 557–567. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.12.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bunge, S. A., & Wright, S. B. (2007). Neurodevelopmental changes in working memory and cognitive control. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 17(2), 243–250. doi:10.1016/j.conb.2007.02.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burggren, A. C., Siddarth, P., Mahmood, Z., London, E. D., Harrison, T. M., Merrill, D. A., … Bookheimer, S. Y. (2018). Subregional hippocampal thickness abnormalities in older adults with a history of heavy cannabis use. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research, 3(1), 242–251. doi:10.1089/can.2018.0035
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Burston, J. J., Wiley, J. L., Craig, A. A., Selley, D. E., & Sim-Selley, L. J. (2010). Regional enhancement of cannabinoid CB1 receptor desensitization in female adolescent rats following repeated delta-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure. British Journal of Pharmacology, 161(1), 103–112. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2010.00870.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camchong, J., Lim, K. O., & Kumra, S. (2017). Adverse effects of cannabis on adolescent brain development: A longitudinal study. Cerebral Cortex, 27, 1922–1930. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhw015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cha, Y. M., White, A. M., Kuhn, C. M., Wilson, W. A., & Swartzwelder, H. S. (2006). Differential effects of delta 9 -THC on learning in adolescent and adult rats. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 83(3), 448–455. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.03.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chambers, R. A., Taylor, J. R., & Potenza, M. N. (2003). Developmental neurocircuitry of motivation in adolescence: A critical period of addiction vulnerability. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(6), 1041–1052. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.6.1041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, L., Yakupov, R., Cloak, C., & Ernst, T. (2006). Marijuana use is associated with a reorganized visual-attention network and cerebellar hypoactivation. Brain, 129(5), 1096–1112. doi:10.1093/brain/awl064
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheetham, A., Allen, N. B., Whittle, S., Simmons, J. G., Yücel, M., & Lubman, D. I. (2012). Orbitofrontal volumes in early adolescence predict initiation of cannabis use: A 4-year longitudinal and prospective study. Biological Psychiatry, 71(8), 684–692. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.10.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, K., & Kandel, D. B. (1995). The natural history of drug use from adolescence to the mid-thirties in a general population sample. American Journal of Public Health, 85(1), 41–48. doi:10.2105/AJPH.85.1.41
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Churchwell, J. C., Lopez-Larson, M. P., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2010). Altered frontal cortical volume and decision making in adolescent cannabis users. Frontiers in Psychology, 1, 1–8. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00225
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chye, Y., Christensen, E., Solowij, N., & Yücel, M. (2019). The endocannabinoid system and cannabidiol’s promise for the treatment of substance use disorder. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 63–61. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00063
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chye, Y., Suo, C., Lorenzetti, V., Batalla, A., Cousijn, J., Goudriaan, A. E., … Yücel, M. (2019). Cortical surface morphology in long-term cannabis users: A multi-site MRI study. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 29(2), 257–265. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2018.11.1110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cousijn, J., Wiers, R. W., Ridderinkhof, K. R., van den Brink, W., Veltman, D. J., & Goudriaan, A. E. (2012). Grey matter alterations associated with cannabis use: Results of a VBM study in heavy cannabis users and healthy controls. NeuroImage, 59(4), 3845–3851. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.09.046
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crews, F., He, J., & Hodge, C. (2007). Adolescent cortical development: A critical period of vulnerability for addiction. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 86(2), 189–199. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2006.12.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalton, V. S., & Zavitsanou, K. (2010). Cannabinoid effects on CB1 receptor density in the adolescent brain: An autoradiographic study using the synthetic cannabinoid HU210. Synapse, 64(11), 845–854. doi:10.1002/syn.20801
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Degenhardt, L., Chiu, W.-T., Sampson, N., Kessler, R. C., Anthony, J. C., Angermeyer, M., … Wells, J. E. (2008). Toward a global view of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, and cocaine use: Findings from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. PLoS Medicine, 5(7), 1053–1067. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0050141
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeWit, D. J., Offord, D. R., & Wong, M. (1997). Patterns of onset and cessation of drug use over the early part of the life course. Health Education and Behavior, 24(6), 746–758. doi:10.1177/109019819702400609
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dougherty, D. M., Mathias, C. W., Dawes, M. A., Furr, R. M., Charles, N. E., Liguori, A., … Acheson, A. (2013). Impulsivity, attention, memory, and decision-making among adolescent marijuana users. Psychopharmacology, 226(2), 307–319. doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2908-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dow-Edwards, D., & Silva, L. (2017). Endocannabinoids in brain plasticity: Cortical maturation, HPA axis function and behavior. Brain Research, 1654(2017), 157–164. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2016.08.037
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ehrenreich, H., Kunert, H. J., Moeller, M. R., Poser, W., Schilling, L., Gigerenzer, G., … Rinn, T. (1999). Specific attentional dysfunction in adults following early start of cannabis use. Psychopharmacology, 142(3), 295–301. doi:10.1007/s002130050892
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellgren, M., Artmann, A., Tkalych, O., Gupta, A., Hansen, H. S., Hansen, S. H., … Hurd, Y. L. (2008). Dynamic changes of the endogenous cannabinoid and opioid mesocorticolimbic systems during adolescence: THC effects. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 18(11), 826–834. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2008.06.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, K. A., & Kumra, S. (2015a). Altered cortical maturation in adolescent cannabis users with and without schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 162(1–3), 143–152. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2014.11.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, K. A., & Kumra, S. (2015b). White matter fractional anisotropy over two time points in early onset schizophrenia and adolescent cannabis use disorder: A naturalistic diffusion tensor imaging study. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 232(1), 34–41. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2014.10.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, K. A., Cullen, K., Mueller, B., Lee, S., & Kumra, S. (2014). White matter abnormalities and cognitive impairment in early-onset schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53(3), 362–372. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.12.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filbey, F. M., & Yezhuvath, U. (2013). Functional connectivity in inhibitory control networks and severity of cannabis use disorder. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 39(6), 382–391. doi:10.3109/00952990.2013.841710
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filbey, F. M., McQueeny, T., DeWitt, S. J., & Mishra, V. (2015). Preliminary findings demonstrating latent effects of early adolescent marijuana use onset on cortical architecture. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 16–22. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.10.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galvan, A. (2010). Adolescent development of the reward system. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 4, 1–9. doi:10.3389/neuro.09.006.2010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gogtay, N., Giedd, J. N., Lusk, L., Hayashi, K. M., Greenstein, D., Vaituzis, A. C., … Thompson, P. M. (2004). Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101(21), 8174–8179. doi:10.1073/pnas.0402680101
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gruber, S. A., Dahlgren, M. K., Sagar, K. A., Gönenç, A., & Lukas, S. E. (2014). Worth the wait: Effects of age of onset of marijuana use on white matter and impulsivity. Psychopharmacology, 231(8), 1455–1465. doi:10.1007/s00213-013-3326-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gruber, S. A., Silveri, M. M., Dahlgren, M. K., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2011). Why so impulsive? White matter alterations are associated with impulsivity in chronic marijuana smokers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 19(3), 231–242. doi:10.1037/a0023034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson, K. L., Winward, J. L., Schweinsburg, A. D., Lisdahl, K., Brown, S. A., & Tapert, S. F. (2010). Longitudinal study of cognition among adolescent marijuana users over three weeks of abstinence. Addictive Behaviors, 35(11), 970–976. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.06.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey, M. A., Sellman, J. D., Porter, R. J., & Frampton, C. M. (2007). The relationship between non-acute adolescent cannabis use and cognition. Drug and Alcohol Review, 26(3), 309–319. doi:10.1080/09595230701247772
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hester, R., Nestor, L., & Garavan, H. (2009). Impaired error awareness and anterior cingulate cortex hypoactivity in chronic cannabis users. Neuropsychopharmacology, 34(11), 2450–2458. doi:10.1038/npp.2009.67
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopfer, C. (2014). Implications of marijuana legalization for adolescent substance use. Substance Abuse, 35(4), 331–335. doi:10.1080/08897077.2014.943386
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huestegge, L., Radach, R., Kunert, H. J., & Heller, D. (2002). Visual search in long-term cannabis users with early age of onset. Progress in Brain Research, 140, 377–394. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(02)40064-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurd, Y. L. (2017). Cannabidiol: Swinging the marijuana pendulum from ‘weed’ to medication to treat the opioid epidemic. Trends in Neurosciences, 40(3), 124–127. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2016.12.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson, N. J., Isen, J. D., Khoddam, R., Irons, D., Tuvblad, C., Iacono, W. G., … Baker, L. A. (2015). Impact of adolescent marijuana use on intelligence: Results from two longitudinal twin studies. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(5), E500–E508. doi:10.1073/pnas.1516648113
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobsen, L. K., Mencl, W. E., Westerveld, M., & Pugh, K. R. (2004). Impact of cannabis use on brain function in adolescents. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021(1), 384–390. doi:10.1196/annals.1308.053
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacobus, J., & Tapert, S. F. (2013). Neurotoxic effects of alcohol in adolescence. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9(1), 703–721. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185610
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacobus, J., & Tapert, S. F. (2014). Effects of cannabis on the adolescent brain. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 20(13), 2186–2193. doi:10.2174/13816128113199990426
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobus, J., Castro, N., Squeglia, L. M., Meloy, M. J., Brumback, T., Huestis, M. A., & Tapert, S. F. (2016). Adolescent cortical thickness pre- and post marijuana and alcohol initiation. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 57, 20–29. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2016.09.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobus, J., Goldenberg, D., Wierenga, C. E., Tolentino, N. J., Liu, T. T., & Tapert, S. F. (2012). Altered cerebral blood flow and neurocognitive correlates in adolescent cannabis users. Psychopharmacology, 222(4), 675–684. doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2674-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobus, J., Squeglia, L. M., Meruelo, A. D., Castro, N., Brumback, T., Giedd, J. N., & Tapert, S. F. (2015). Cortical thickness in adolescent marijuana and alcohol users: A three-year prospective study from adolescence to young adulthood. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 101–109. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.04.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobus, J., Squeglia, L. M., Sorg, S. F., Nguyen-Louie, T. T., & Tapert, S. F. (2014). Cortical thickness and neurocognition in adolescent marijuana and alcohol users following 28 days of monitored abstinence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 75(5), 729–743. doi:10.15288/jsad.2014.75.729
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jager, G., Block, R. I., Luijten, M., & Ramsey, N. F. (2010). Cannabis use and memory brain function in adolescent boys: A cross-sectional multicenter functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(6), 561–572. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.02.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jager, G., Block, R. I., Luijten, M., & Ramsey, N. F. (2013). Tentative evidence for striatal hyperactivity in adolescent cannabis-using boys: A cross-sectional multicenter fMRI study. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 45(2), 156–167. doi:10.1080/02791072.2013.785837
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakabek, D., Yücel, M., Lorenzetti, V., & Solowij, N. (2016). An MRI study of white matter tract integrity in regular cannabis users: Effects of cannabis use and age. Psychopharmacology, 233(19–20), 3627–3637. doi:10.1007/s00213-016-4398-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston, L. D., Miech, R. A., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., Schulenberg, J. E., & Patrick, M. E. (2019). Monitoring the Future: National survey results on drug use 1975-2018. 2018 Overview: Key findings on adolescent drug use.
   Google Scholar
• Karoly, H. C., Bryan, A. D., Weiland, B. J., Mayer, A., Dodd, A., & Ewing, S. W. F. (2015). Does incentive-elicited nucleus accumbens activation differ by substance of abuse? An examination with adolescents. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 5–15. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.05.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenders, L., Lorenzetti, V., de Haan, L., Suo, C., Vingerhoets, W. A. M., van den Brink, W., … Cousijn, J. (2017). Longitudinal study of hippocampal volumes in heavy cannabis users. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 31(8), 1027–1034. doi:10.1177/0269881117718380
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumra, S., Robinson, P., Tambyraja, R., Jensen, D., Schimunek, C., Houri, A., … Lim, K. (2012). Parietal lobe volume deficits in adolescents with schizophrenia and adolescents with cannabis use disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 51(2), 171–180. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.11.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lattanzi, S., Brigo, F., Trinka, E., Zaccara, G., Cagnetti, C., Del Giovane, C., & Silvestrini, M. (2018). Efficacy and safety of cannabidiol in epilepsy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Drugs, 78(17), 1791–1804. doi:10.1007/s40265-018-0992-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levar, N., Francis, A. N., Smith, M. J., Ho, W. C., & Gilman, J. M. (2018). Verbal memory performance and reduced cortical thickness of brain regions along the uncinate fasciculus in young adult cannabis users. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research, 3(1), 56–65. doi:10.1089/can.2017.0030
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lopez-Larson, M. P., Bogorodzki, P., Rogowska, J., McGlade, E., King, J. B., Terry, J., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2011). Altered prefrontal and insular cortical thickness in adolescent marijuana users. Behavioural Brain Research, 220(1), 164–172. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.02.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopez-Larson, M. P., Rogowska, J., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2015). Aberrant orbitofrontal connectivity in marijuana smoking adolescents. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 54–62. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.08.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lopez-Larson, M. P., Rogowska, J., Bogorodzki, P., Bueler, C. E., McGlade, E. C., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2012). Cortico-cerebellar abnormalities in adolescents with heavy marijuana use. Psychiatry Research, 202(3), 224–232. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2011.11.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorenzetti, V., Alonso-Lana, S., Youssef, G. J., Verdejo-Garcia, A., Suo, C., Cousijne, J., … Solowij, N. (2016). Adolescent cannabis use: What is the evidence for functional brain alteration? Current Pharmaceutical Design, 22(42), 6353–6365. doi:10.2174/1381612822666160805155922
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorenzetti, V., Chye, Y., Silva, P., Solowij, N., & Roberts, C. A. (2019). Does regular cannabis use affect neuroanatomy? An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of structural neuroimaging studies. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 269(1), 59–71. doi:10.1007/s00406-019-00979-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lubman, D. I., Cheetham, A., & Yücel, M. (2014). Cannabis and adolescent brain development. Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 148, 1–16. doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2014.11.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luna, B., Garver, K. E., Urban, T. A., Lazar, N. A., & Sweeney, J. A. (2004). Maturation of cognitive processes from late childhood to adulthood. Child Development, 75(5), 1357–1372. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00745.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackey, S., Allgaier, N., Chaarani, B., Spechler, P., Orr, C., Bunn, J., … Garavan, H. (2019). Mega-analysis of gray matter volume in substance dependence: General and substance-specific regional effects. American Journal of Psychiatry, 176(2), 119–128. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17040415
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mata, I., Perez-Iglesias, R., Roiz-Santiañez, R., Tordesillas-Gutierrez, D., Pazos, A., Gutierrez, A., … Crespo-Facorro, B. (2010). Gyrification brain abnormalities associated with adolescence and early-adulthood cannabis use. Brain Research, 1317, 297–304. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2009.12.069
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McQueeny, T., Padula, C. B., Price, J., Lisdahl, K., Logan, P., & Tapert, S. F. (2011). Gender effects on amygdala morphometry in adolescent marijuana users. Behavioural Brain Research, 224(1), 128–134. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.05.031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medina, K. L., McQueeny, T., Nagel, B. J., Hanson, K. L., Yang, T. T., & Tapert, S. F. (2009). Prefrontal cortex morphometry in abstinent adolescent marijuana users: Subtle gender effects. Addiction Biology, 14(4), 457–468. doi:10.1111/j.1369-1600.2009.00166.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medina, K. L., Nagel, B. J., & Tapert, S. F. (2010). Abnormal cerebellar morphometry in abstinent adolescent marijuana users. Psychiatry Research, 182(2), 152–159. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2009.12.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medina, K. L., Nagel, B. J., Park, A., McQueeny, T., & Tapert, S. F. (2007). Depressive symptoms in adolescents: Associations with white matter volume and marijuana use. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(6), 592–600. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01728.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier, M. H., Caspi, A., Ambler, A., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Keefe, R. S. E., … Moffitt, T. E. (2012). Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(40), E2657–E2664. doi:10.1073/pnas.1206820109
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier, M. H., Caspi, A., Danese, A., Fisher, H. L., Houts, R., Arseneault, L., & Moffitt, T. E. (2018). Associations between adolescent cannabis use and neuropsychological decline: A longitudinal co-twin control study. Addiction, 113(2), 257–265. doi:10.1111/add.13946
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, H. C., Lee, F. S., & Gee, D. G. (2018). The role of the endocannabinoid system and genetic variation in adolescent brain development. Neuropsychopharmacology, 43(1), 21–33. doi:10.1038/npp.2017.143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mokrysz, C., Landy, R., Gage, S., Munafò, M., Roiser, J., & Curran, H. (2016). Are IQ and educational outcomes in teenagers related to their cannabis use? A prospective cohort study. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 30(2), 159–168. doi:10.1177/0269881115622241
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orr, J. M., Paschall, C. J., & Banich, M. T. (2016). Recreational marijuana use impacts white matter integrity and subcortical (but not cortical) morphometry. NeuroImage: Clinical, 12, 47–56. doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2016.06.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pertwee, R. G., & Ross, R. A. (2002). Cannabinoid receptors and their ligands. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, 66(2–3), 101–121. doi:10.1054/plef.2001.0341
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope, H. G., Gruber, A. J., Hudson, J. I., Cohane, G., Huestis, M. A., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2003). Early-onset cannabis use and cognitive deficits: What is the nature of the association? Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 69(3), 303–310. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00334-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prescot, A. P., Locatelli, A. E., Renshaw, P. F., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2011). Neurochemical alterations in adolescent chronic marijuana smokers: A proton MRS study. NeuroImage, 57(1), 69–75. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.02.044
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prescot, A. P., Renshaw, P. F., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2013). γ-Amino butyric acid and glutamate abnormalities in adolescent chronic marijuana smokers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 129(3), 232–239. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.02.028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn, H. R., Matsumoto, I., Callaghan, P. D., Long, L. E., Arnold, J. C., Gunasekaran, N., … McGregor, I. S. (2008). Adolescent rats find repeated Δ9-THC less aversive than adult rats but display greater residual cognitive deficits and changes in hippocampal protein expression following exposure. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33(5), 1113–1126. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301475
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sagar, K. A., Dahlgren, M. K., Gönenç, A., Racine, M. T., Dreman, M. W., & Gruber, S. A. (2015). The impact of initiation: Early onset marijuana smokers demonstrate altered Stroop performance and brain activation. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 84–92. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.03.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider, M., & Koch, M. (2003). Chronic pubertal, but not adult chronic cannabinoid treatment impairs sensorimotor gating, recognition memory, and the performance in a progressive ratio task in adult rats. Neuropsychopharmacology, 28(10), 1760–1769. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300225
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schweinsburg, A. D., Nagel, B. J., Schweinsburg, B. C., Park, A., Theilmann, R. J., & Tapert, S. F. (2008). Abstinent adolescent marijuana users show altered fMRI response during spatial working memory. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 163(1), 40–51. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2007.04.018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schweinsburg, A. D., Schweinsburg, B. C., Medina, K. L., Mcqueeny, T., Brown, S. A., & Tapert, S. F. (2010). The influence of recency of use on fMRI response during spatial working memory in adolescent marijuana users. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(3), 401–412. doi:10.1080/02791072.2010.10400703
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schweinsburg, A. D., Schweinsburg, B. C., Nagel, B. J., Eyler, L. T., & Tapert, S. F. (2011). Neural correlates of verbal learning in adolescent alcohol and marijuana users. Addiction, 106(3), 564–573. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03197.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, J. C., Rosen, A. F. G., Moore, T. M., Roalf, D. R., Satterthwaite, T. D., Calkins, M. E., … Gur, R. C. (2019). Cannabis use in youth is associated with limited alterations in brain structure. Neuropsychopharmacology, 44(8), 1362–1369. doi:10.1038/s41386-019-0347-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, J. C., Slomiak, S. T., Jones, J. D., Rosen, A. F. G., Moore, T. M., & Gur, R. C. (2018). Association of cannabis with cognitive functioning in adolescents and young adults. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(6), 585–595. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.0335
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Selemon, L. D. (2013). A role for synaptic plasticity in the adolescent development of executive function. Translational Psychiatry, 3(3), e238. doi:10.1038/tp.2013.7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solowij, N., Jones, K. A., Rozman, M. E., Davis, S. M., Ciarrochi, J., Heaven, P. C. L., … Yücel, M. (2011). Verbal learning and memory in adolescent cannabis users, alcohol users and non-users. Psychopharmacology, 216(1), 131–144. doi:10.1007/s00213-011-2203-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solowij, N., Yucel, M., Lorenzetti, V., & Lubman, D. (2012). Does cannabis cause lasting brain damage? In D. Castle, R. M. Murray & D. Cyril. D’Souza (Eds.), Marijuana and Madness (pp. 103–113). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Spear, L. P. (2000). The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 24(4), 417–463. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(00)00014-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spechler, P. A., Allgaier, N., Chaarani, B., Whelan, R., Watts, R., Orr, C. … the IMAGEN Consortium. (in press). The initiation of cannabis use in adolescence is predicted by sex-specific psychosocial and neurobiological features. European Journal of Neuroscience, 1–11. doi:10.1111/ejn.13989
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spechler, P. A., Orr, C. A., Chaarani, B., Kan, K.-J., Mackey, S., & Morton, A. (2015). Cannabis use in early adolescence: Evidence of amygdala hypersensitivity to signals of threat. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 63–70. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.08.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subramaniam, P., Rogowska, J., DiMuzio, J., Lopez-Larson, M., Mcglade, E., & Yurgelun-Todd, D. A. (2018). Orbitofrontal connectivity is associated with depression and anxiety in marijuana-using adolescents. Journal of Affective Disorders, 239, 234–241. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.07.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, C. for B. H. S. and Q. (2018). Treatment episode data set (TEDS): 2016. Admissions to and discharges from publicly funded substance use treatment, doi:10.3886/ICPSR24280.v6
   Google Scholar
• Tapert, S. F., Schweinsburg, A. D., Drummond, S. P. A., Paulus, M. P., Brown, S. A., Yang, T. T., & Frank, L. R. (2007). Functional MRI of inhibitory processing in abstinent adolescent marijuana users. Psychopharmacology, 194(2), 173–183. doi:10.1007/s00213-007-0823-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tervo-Clemmens, B., Simmonds, D., Calabro, F. J., Day, N. L., Richardson, G. A., & Luna, B. (2018). Adolescent cannabis use and brain systems supporting adult working memory encoding, maintenance, and retrieval. NeuroImage, 169, 496–509. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.12.041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tervo-Clemmens, B., Simmonds, D., Calabro, F. J., Montez, D. F., Lekht, J. A., Day, N. L., … Luna, B. (2019). Early cannabis use and neurocognitive risk: A prospective functional neuroimaging study. Biological Psychiatry, 3(8), 713–725. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2018.05.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2018). World drug report 2018. New York, NY: United Nations publication. Sales No. E.18.XI.9.
   Google Scholar
• Viveros, M. P., Marco, E. M., & File, S. E. (2005). Endocannabinoid system and stress and anxiety responses. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 81(2), 331–342. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2005.01.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkow, N. D., & Morales, M. (2015). The brain on drugs: From reward to addiction. Cell, 162(4), 712–725. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.07.046
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volkow, N. D., Fowler, J. S., & Wang, G.-J. (2003). The addicted brain: Insights from imaging studies. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 111(10), 1444–1451. doi:10.1172/JCI200318533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiland, B. J., Thayer, R. E., Depue, B. E., Sabbineni, A., Bryan, A. D., & Hutchison, K. E. (2015). Daily marijuana use is not associated with brain morphometric measures in adolescents or adults. The Journal of Neuroscience, 35(4), 1505–1512. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2946-14.2015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westlake, T. M., Howlett, A. C., Bonner, T. I., Matsuda, L. A., & Herkenham, M. (1994). Cannabinoid receptor binding and messenger RNA expression in human brain: An in vitro receptor autoradiography and in situ hybridization histochemistry study of normal aged and Alzheimer’s brains. Neuroscience, 63(3), 637–652. doi:10.1016/0306-4522(94)90511-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, W., Mathew, R., Turkington, T., Hawk, T., Coleman, R. E., & Provenzale, J. (2000). Brain morphological changes and early marijuana use: A magnetic resonance and positron emission tomography study. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 19(1), 1–21. doi:10.1300/j069v19n01_01
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yücel, M., Zalesky, A., Takagi, M. J., Bora, E., Fornito, A., Ditchfield, M., … Lubman, D. I. (2010). White-matter abnormalities in adolescents with long-term inhalant and cannabis use: A diffusion magnetic resonance imaging study. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 35(6), 409–412. doi:10.1503/jpn.090177
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zalesky, A., Solowij, N., Yucel, M., Lubman, D. I., Takagi, M., Harding, I. H., … Seal, M. (2012). Effect of long-term cannabis use on axonal fibre connectivity. Brain, 135(7), 2245–2255. doi:10.1093/brain/aws136
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar