Positive stereotyping: Influence tactic for prejudice reduction?

REFERENCES

• Abelson , R. P. and Prentice , D. A. 1997 . Contrast tests of interaction hypothesis. . Psychological Methods , 2 : 315 – 328 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alicke , M. D. , Klotz , M. L. , Breitenbecher , D. L. , Yurak , T. J. and Vredenburg , D. S. 1995 . Personal contact, individuation, and the better‐than‐average effect. . Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes , 68 (5) : 804 – 825 .
   Google Scholar
• Allport , G. W. 1954 . The nature of prejudice , Oxford, , UK : Addison‐Wesley .
   Google Scholar
• Aronson , E. , Blaney , N. , Stephin , C. , Sikes , J. and Snapp , M. 1978 . The jigsaw classroom , Beverly Hills, CA : Sage Publishing Company .
   Google Scholar
• Baron , R. M. and Kenny , D. A. 1986 . The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 51 : 1173 – 1182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron , R. S. , Kerr , N. L. and Miller , N. 1992 . “ Group aggression and intergroup conflict. ” . In Group process, group decision, group action , Edited by: Manstead , T . 125 – 154 . Ann Arbor, MI : Malloy Lithographing, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Batson , C. D. , Chang , J. , Orr , R. and Rowland , J. 2002 . Empathy, attitudes and action: Can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group motivate one to help the group. . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 28 : 1656 – 1666 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bettencourt , B. A. , Brewer , M. B. , Croak , M. R. and Miller , N. 1992 . Cooperation and the reduction of intergroup bias: The role of reward structure and social orientation. . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 28 : 301 – 319 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bodenhausen , G. V. 1990 . Second‐guessing the jury: Stereotypic and hindsight biases in perceptions of court cases. . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 20 : 1112 – 1121 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bodenhausen , G. V. and Lichtenstein , M. 1987 . Social stereotypes and information‐processing strategies: The impact of task complexity. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 52 (5) : 871 – 880 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bodenhausen , G. V. , Schwarz , N. , Bless , H. and Wanke , M. 1995 . Effects of atypical examplar on racial beliefs: Enlightened racism or generalized appraisals? . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 31 : 48 – 63 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bodenhausen , G. V. and Wyer , R. S. Jr. 1985 . Effects of stereotypes on decision making and information‐processing strategies. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 48 (2) : 267 – 282 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brewer , M. B. and Miller , N. 1984 . “ Beyond the contact hypothesis: Theoretical perspectives on desegregation. ” . In Groups in contact: The psychology of desegregation , Edited by: Miller , N and Brewer , M. B . 281 – 301 . New York : Academic Press, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Cameron , J. A. and Trope , Y. 2004 . Stereotype‐biased search and processing of information about group members. . Social Cognition , 22 (6) : 650 – 672 .
   Google Scholar
• Devine , P. 1989 . Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 56 : 5 – 18 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ensari , N. and Miller , N. 2002 . The out‐group must not be so bad after all: The effects of disclosure, typicality, and salience on intergroup bias. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 83 : 313 – 329 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaertner , S. L. and Dovidio , J. F. 1999 . Reducing prejudice: Combating intergroup biases. . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 8 : 101 – 105 .
   Google Scholar
• Ginossar , Z. and Trope , Y. 1987 . Problem solving in judgment under uncertainty. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 52 (3) : 464 – 474 .
   Google Scholar
• Hamburger , Y. 1994 . The contact hypothesis reconsidered: Effects of the atypical out‐group member on the out‐group stereotype. . Basic and Applied Social Psychology , 15 : 339 – 358 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hewstone , M. 1996 . “ Contact and categorization: Social psychological interventions to intergroup relations. ” . In Stereotypes and stereotyping , Edited by: Macrae , C. N , Stangor , C and Hewstone , M . 323 – 368 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hewstone , M. and Brown , R. J. 1986 . “ Contact is not enough: An inter‐group perspective on the “contact hypothesis.” . In Contact and conflict in intergroup encounters , Edited by: Hewstone , M and Brown , R. J . 1 – 44 . Oxford, , UK : Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Hewstone , M. and Lord , C. G. 1998 . “ Changing intergroup cognitions and intergroup behavior: The role of typicality. ” . In Intergroup cognition and intergroup behavior , Edited by: Insko , C. A , Schopler , J and Sedikides , C . 367 – 392 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Hilton , J. L. and von Hippel , W. 1996 . Stereotypes. . Annual Review of Psychology , 47 : 237 – 271 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson , D. W. and Johnson , R. T. 1989 . Edina, MN : Interaction Book Company . Cooperation and competition: Theory and research (Vol. 8)
   Google Scholar
• Johnston , L. and Hewstone , M. 1992 . Cognitive models of stereotype change: III. Subtyping and the perceived typicality of disconfirming group members. . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 28 : 360 – 386 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston , L. , Locke , V. , Giles , L. and Rattray , K. 1997 . The good, the bad, and the ugly. . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 27 : 725 – 741 .
   Google Scholar
• Judd , C. M. and Park , B. 1988 . Out‐group homogeneity: Judgments of variability at the individual and group levels. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 54 : 778 – 788 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahneman , D. and Tversky , A. 1972 . Subjective probability: A judgment of representativeness. . Cognitive Psychology , 3 : 430 – 454 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahneman , D. and Tversky , A. 1973 . On the psychology of prediction. . Psychological Review , 80 : 237 – 251 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunda , Z. and Oleson , K. 1995 . Maintaining stereotypes in the face of disconfirmation: Constructing grounds for subtyping deviants. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 68 : 565 – 579 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lepore , L. and Brown , R. P. 1997 . Category and stereotype activation: Is prejudice inevitable? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 72 : 275 – 287 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locksley , A. , Hepburn , C. and Ortiz , V. 1982 . Social stereotypes and judgments of individuals: An instance of the base‐rate fallacy. . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 18 (1) : 23 – 42 .
   Google Scholar
• Lui , L. and Brewer , M. B. 1983 . Recognition accuracy as evidence of category consistency effects in person memory. . Social Cognition , 2 : 89 – 107 .
   Google Scholar
• Mass , A. , Brigham , J. C. and West , S. 1985 . Testifying on eyewitness reliability: Expert advice is not always persuasive. . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 15 : 207 – 229 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , N. and Davidson‐Podgorny , G. 1987 . “ Theoretical models of intergroup relations and the use of cooperative teams as an intervention for desegregated settings. ” . Edited by: Hendrick , C . Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage Publications, Inc . Group processes and intergroup relations. Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 9, pp. 41–67)
   Google Scholar
• Mullen , B. and Hu , L. 1989 . Perceptions of ingroup and out‐group variability: A meta‐analytic integration. . Basic & Applied Social Psychology , 10 : 233 – 252 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nisbett , R. E. and Borgida , E. 1975 . Attribution and the psychology prediction. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 32 : 932 – 943 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paolini , S. , Hewstone , M. , Rubin , M. and Pay , H. 2004 . Increased group dispersion after exposure to one deviant group member: Testing Hamburger's model of member‐to‐group generalization. . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 40 : 569 – 585 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park , B. and Judd , C. M. 1990 . Measures and models of perceived group variability. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 59 : 173 – 191 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park , B. and Rothbart , M. 1982 . Perception of out‐group homogeneity and levels of social categorization: Memory for the subordinate attributes of in‐group and out‐group members. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 42 : 1051 – 1068 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew , T. F. 1997 . Generalized intergroup contact effects on prejudice. . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 23 : 173 – 185 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew , T. F. and Tropp , L. R. 2000 . “ Does intergroup contact reduce prejudice: Recent meta‐analytic findings. ” . In Reducing prejudice and discrimination. “The Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology” , Edited by: Oskamp , S . 93 – 114 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Pratkanis , A. R. in press . “ Social influence analysis: An index of tactics. ” . In The science of social influence: Advances and future progress , Edited by: Pratkanis , A. R . Philadelphia : Psychology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rosenthal , R. , Rosnow , R. L. and Rubin , D. B. 2000 . Contrasts and effect sizes in behavioral research: A correlational approach , New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rothbart , M. and Lewis , S. 1988 . Inferring category attributes from exemplar attributes: Geometric shapes and social categories. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 55 : 861 – 972 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothbart , M. , Sriram , N. and Davis‐Stitt , C. 1995 . Typicality, category‐exemplar relations, and stereotyping Unpublished manuscript, University of Oregon, Eugene
   Google Scholar
• Schwarz , N. and Bless , H. 1992 . Scandals and the public's trust in politicians: Assimilation and contrast effects. . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 18 : 574 – 579 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherif , M. , Harvey , O. J. , White , B. J. , Hood , W. R. and Sherif , C. W. 1954/1961 . Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The robbers cave experiment , Norman, OK : University Book Exchange .
   Google Scholar
• Shih , M. , Ambady , N. , Richeson , J. A. , Fujita , K. and Gray , H. M. 2002 . Stereotype performance boosts: The impact of self‐relevance and the manner of stereotype activation. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 83 : 638 – 647 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , E. and Zarate , M. 1992 . Exemplar‐based model of social judgment. . Psychological Review , 99 : 3 – 21 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snyder , M. , Tanke , E. and Berscheid , E. 1977 . Social perception and interpersonal behavior: On the self‐fulfilling nature of social stereotypes. . Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 35 : 656 – 666 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stangor , C. , Jonas , K. , Stroebe , W. and Hewstone , M. 1996 . Influence of student exchange on national stereotypes, attitudes and perceived group variability. . European Journal of Social Psychology , 26 : 663 – 675 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stapel , D. and Koomen , W. 1998 . When stereotype activation results in (counter) stereotypical judgments: Priming stereotype‐relevant traits and exemplars. . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 34 : 136 – 163 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urban , L. M. and Miller , N. 1998 . A theoretical analysis of cross categorization effects: A meta‐analysis. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74 : 894 – 908 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weber , R. and Crocker , J. 1983 . Cognitive process in the revision of stereotypic beliefs. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 45 : 961 – 977 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werth , J. L. and Lord , C. G. 1992 . Previous conceptions of the typical group member and the contact hypothesis. . Basic & Applied Social Psychology , 13 : 351 – 369 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder , D. A. 1984 . Intergroup contact: The typical member and the exception to the rule. . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 20 : 177 – 194 .
   Google Scholar
• Worchel , S. 1986 . The influence of contextual variables on interpersonal spacing. . Journal of Nonverbal Behavior , 10 : 230 – 254 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright , S. C. , Aaron , A. , McLaughlin‐Volpe , T. and Ropp , S. A. 1997 . The extended contact effect: Knowledge of cross‐group friendships and prejudice. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 73 : 73 – 90 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yzerbyt , V. Y. , Schadron , G. , Leyens , J. P. and Rocher , S. 1994 . Social judgeability: The impact of meta‐informational cues on the use of stereotypes. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 66 (1) : 48 – 55 .
   Google Scholar
• Zukier , H. and Pepitone , A. 1984 . Social roles and strategies in prediction: Some determinants of the use of base‐rate information. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 47 (2) : 349 – 360 .
   Google Scholar