Interpersonal Trauma, and PTSD Symptomology among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Individuals: A Closer Look at Gender, Minority Stress, and Help-Seeking Behaviors

References

• Alessi, E. J., Martin, J. I., Gyamerah, A., & Meyer, I. H. (2013). Prejudice events and traumatic stress among heterosexuals and lesbians, gay men and bisexuals. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma, 22, 510–526. doi:10.1080/10926771.2013.785455
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almeida, J., Johnson, R. M., Corliss, H. L., Molnar, B. E., & Azrael, D. (2009). Emotional distress among LGBT youth: The influence of perceived discrimination based on sexual orientation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(7), 1001–1014. doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9397-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
   Google Scholar
• Ashmore, R. D., Deaux, K., & McLaughlin-Volpe, T. (2004). An organizing framework for collective identity: Articulation and significance of multidimensionality. Psychological Bulletin, 130(1), 80–114. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balsam, K. F., Rothblum, E. D., & Beauchaine, T. P. (2005). Victimization over the life span: A comparison of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and heterosexual siblings. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 477–487. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.477
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandermann, K. M., & Szymanski, D. M. (2014). Exploring coping mediators between heterosexist oppression and posttraumatic stress symptoms among lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 1(3), 213–224. doi:10.1037/sgd0000044
   Google Scholar
• Bernhard, L. A. (2000). Physical and sexual violence experienced by lesbian and heterosexual women. Violence against Women, 6(1), 68–79. doi:10.1177/10778010022181714
   Google Scholar
• Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for the DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498. doi:10.1002/jts.22059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bovin, M. J., Marx, B. P., Weathers, F. W., Gallagher, M. W., Rodriguez, P., Schnurr, P. P., & Keane, T. M. (2016). Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist for diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders-fifth edition (PCL-5) in veterans. Psychological Assessment, 28(11), 1379–1391. doi:10.1037/pas0000254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bregman, H. R., Malik, N. M., Page, M. J., Makynen, E., & Lindahl, K. M. (2013). Identity profiles in lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth: The role of family influences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(3), 417–430. doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9798-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 748–766. doi:10.1037//0022-006X.68.5.748
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewster, M. E., Moradi, B., DeBlaere, C., & Velez, B. L. (2013). Navigating the borderlands: The roles of minority stressors, bicultural self-efficacy, and cognitive flexibility in the mental health of bisexual individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(4), 543–556. doi:10.1037/a0033224
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, D. G., Felker, B. L., Liu, C.-F., Yano, E. M., Kirchner, J. E., Chan, D., … Chaney, E. F. (2007). Prevalence of depression–PTSD comorbidity: Implications for clinical practice guidelines and primary care-based interventions. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22(6), 711–718. doi:10.1007/s11606-006-0101-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, L. (1994). A psychometric evaluation of 4-point and 6-point Likert-type scales in relation to reliability and validity. Applied Psychological Measurement, 18, 205–215. doi:10.1177/014662169401800302
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cramer, R. J., McNiel, D. E., Holley, S. R., Shumway, M., & Boccellari, A. (2012). Mental health in violent crime victims: Does sexual orientation matter? Law and Human Behavior, 36(2), 87–95. doi:10.1037/h0093954
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dentato, M. P., Halkitis, P. N., & Orwat, J. (2013). Minority stress theory: An examination of factors surrounding sexual risk behavior among gay and bisexual men who use club drugs. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 25, 509–525. doi:10.1080/10538720.2013.829395
   Google Scholar
• Edwards, K. M., & Sylaska, K. M. (2013). The perpetration of intimate partner violence among LGBTQ college youth: The role of minority stress. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(11), 1721–1731. doi:10.1007/s10964-012-9880-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. doi:10.3758/BF03193146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gemberling, T. M., Cramer, R. J., Miller, R. S., Stroud, C. H., Noland, R. M., & Graham, J. (2015). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual identity as a moderator of relationship functioning after sexual assault. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(20), 3431–3452. doi:10.1177/0886260514563834
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ginsburg, K. R., Winn, R. J., Rudy, B. J., Crawford, J., Zhao, H., & Schwarz, D. F. (2002). How to reach sexual minority youth in the healthcare setting: The teens offer guidance. Journal of Adolescent Health, 31(5), 407–416. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(02)00419-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold, S. D., Feinstein, B. A., Skidmore, W. C., & Marx, B. P. (2011). Childhood physical abuse, internalized homophobia, and experiential avoidance among lesbians and gay men. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 3(1), 50–60. doi:10.1037/a0020487
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomillion, S. C., & Giuliano, T. A. (2011). The influence of media role models on gay, lesbian, and bisexual identity. Journal of Homosexuality, 58(3), 330–354. doi:10.1080/00918369.2011.546729
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halpern, C. T., Young, M. L., Waller, M. W., Martin, S. L., & Kupper, L. L. (2004). Prevalence of partner violence in same-sex romantic and sexual relationships in a national sample of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 35(2), 124–131. doi:10.1016/S1054-139X(03)00345-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedtke, K. A., Ruggiero, K. J., Fitzgerald, M. M., Zinzow, H. M., Saunders, B. E., Resnick, H. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2008). A longitudinal investigation of interpersonal violence in relation to mental health and substance use. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(4), 633–647. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.76.4.633
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hequembourg, A. L., Bimbi, D., & Parsons, J. T. (2011). Sexual victimization and health-related indicators among sexual minority men. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 5(1), 2–20. doi:10.1080/15538605.2011.554603
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Herek, G. M. (2009). Hate crimes and stigma-related experiences among sexual minority adults in the United States: Prevalence estimates from a national probability sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24(1), 54–74. doi:10.1177/0886260508316477
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herek, G. M., Gillis, J. R., & Cogan, J. C. (2009). Internalized stigma among sexual minority adults: Insights from a social psychological perspective. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(1), 32–43. doi:10.1037/a0014672
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder: The burden to the individual and to society. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 61, 4–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick, D. G., Ruggiero, K. J., Acierno, R., Saunder, B. E., Resnick, H. S., & Best, C. L. (2003). Violence and risk of PTSD, major depression, substance abuse/dependence, and comorbidity: Results from the national survey of adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(4), 692–700. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.71.4.692
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuyper, L., & Fokkema, T. (2011). Minority stress and mental health among Dutch LGBs: Examination of differences between sex and sexual orientation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(2), 222–233. doi:10.1037/a0022688
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehavot, K. L., & Simpson, T. L. (2014). Trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression among sexual minority and heterosexual women veterans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(3), 392–403. doi:10.1037/cou0000019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McRae, L., Daire, A. P., Abel, E. M., & Lambie, G. W. (2017). A social learning perspective on childhood trauma and same-sex intimate partner violence. Journal of Counseling and Development, 95, 332–338. doi:10.1002/jcad.12147
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H. (2013). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 1(S), 3–26. doi:10.1037/2329-0382.1.S.3
   Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H. (2015). Resilience in the study of minority stress and health of sexual and gender minorities. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2(3), 209–213. doi:10.1037/sgd0000132
   Google Scholar
• Mohr, J. J., & Kendra, M. S. (2011). Revision and extension of a multidimensional measure of sexual minority identity: The lesbian, gay, and bisexual identity scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(2), 234–245. doi:10.1037/a0022858
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterman, L. M., & Dixon, C. G. (2003). Domestic violence between same-sex partners: Implications for counseling. Journal of Counseling and Development, 81(1), 40. +. Retrieved from http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A98694606/AONE?u=tel_a_rhodes&sid = AONE&xid = c0b72481
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ristock, J. L. (2011). Introduction. In J. L. Ristock (Ed.), Intimate partner violence in LGBTQ lives (pp. 1–12). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Roberts, A. L., Austin, S. B., Corliss, H. L., Vandermorris, A. K., & Koenen, K. C. (2010). Pervasive trauma exposure among US sexual orientation minority adults and risk of posttraumatic stress disorder. Research and Practice, 100, 2433–2441. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.168971
   Google Scholar
• Rosario, M., Schrimshaw, E. W., & Hunter, J. (2009). Disclosure of sexual orientation and subsequent substance use and abuse among lesbian, gay and bisexual youth: Critical role of disclosure reactions. Psychological Addictive Behavior, 23(1), 175–184. doi:10.1037/a0014284
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roth, K. (2015). LGBT: Moving towards equality. World Economic Forum, 64–67.
   Google Scholar
• Scott, S. T. (2007). Multiple traumatic experiences and the development of posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22(7), 932–938. doi:10.1177/0886260507301226
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutter, M., & Perrin, P. B. (2016). Discrimination, mental health, and suicidal ideation among LGBT people of color. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(1), 98–105. doi:10.1037/cou0000126
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Justice. (2009). [Crime in the U.S. by volume and rate of inhabitants, 1990–2009, No. 1 Table]. Crime in the United States.
   Google Scholar
• Walters, M. L., Chen, J., & Breiding, M. J. (2013). The national intimate partner and sexual violence survey (NISVS): 2010 findings on victimization by sexual orientation. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
   Google Scholar
• Wijma, K., Söderquist, J., Björklund, I., & Wijma, B. (2000). Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder among gynecological patients with a history of sexual and physical abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15(9), 944–958. doi:10.1177/088626000015009003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willging, C. E., Salvador, M., & Kano, M. (2006). Unequal treatment: Mental health care for sexual and gender minority groups in a rural state. Psychiatric Services, 57(6), 867–870. doi:10.1176/ps.2006.57.6.867
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, T., Connolly, J., Pepler, D., & Craig, W. (2005). Peer victimization, social support, and psychosocial adjustment of sexual minority adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(5), 471–482. doi:10.1007/s10964-005-7264-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, C. J., Deane, F. P., Ciarrochi, J. V., & Rickwood, D. (2005). Measuring help-seeking intentions: Properties of the general help-seeking questionnaire. Canadian Journal of Counselling, 39, 15–28.
   Google Scholar