Able or unable: how do professionals determine the parenting capacity of mothers with intellectual disabilities

References

• Ainsworth, M., Wagner, E., & Strauss, A. (1945). Children of our children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 49, 227–239.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association. (2010). Guidelines for child custody evaluations in family law proceedings. American Psychologist, 65, 863–867. doi:10.1037/a0021250
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aunos, M., Goupil, G., & Feldman, M. (2003). Les parents présentant une déficience intellectuelle: Revue de littérature. Handicap: Revue de Sciences Humaines et Sociales, 97, 32-54.
   Google Scholar
• Aunos, M., & Pacheco, L. (2013). Changing perspectives via collaborative framework: Parents with intellectual disabilities and their families. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 7, 658–674. doi:10.1080/15548732.2013.852153
   Google Scholar
• Aunos, M., Pacheco, L., Feldman, M., & Ornawka, S. (In preparation). Quality of parenting capacity assessments: Writing Style and assessment process.
   Google Scholar
• Benjet, C., Azar, S. T., & Kuersten-Hogan, R. (2003). Evaluating the parental fitness of psychiatrically diagnosed individuals: Advocating a functional-contextual analysis of parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 17, 238–251. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.17.2.238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernard, S. H. (2007). Parents with LD – The assessment of parenting ability. Advances in Mental Health and Learning Disabilities, 1, 14–18. doi:10.1108/17530180200700026
   Google Scholar
• Booth, T. (2003). Parents with learning difficulties and the stolen generation. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 7, 203–209. doi:10.1177/14690047030073001
   Google Scholar
• Booth, T., Booth, W., & McConnell, D. (2005a). The prevalence and outcomes of care proceedings involving parents with learning difficulties in the family courts. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 18, 7–17. doi:10.1111/jar.2005.18.issue-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Booth, T., Booth, W., & McConnell, D. (2005b). Care proceedings and parents with learning difficulties: Comparative prevalence and outcomes in an English and Australian court sample. Child and Family Social Work, 10, 353–360. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2206.2005.00378.x
   Google Scholar
• Booth, T., Booth, W., & McConnell, D. (2006). Temporal discrimination and parents with learning difficulties in the child protection system. British Journal of Social Work, 36, 997–1015. doi:10.1093/bjsw/bch401
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Booth, W., & Booth, T. (2004). A family at risk: Multiple perspectives on parenting and child protection. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 9–15. doi:10.1111/bld.2004.32.issue-1
   Google Scholar
• Bow, J. N., Gottlieb, M. C., & Gould-Saltman, D. (2011). Attorney’s beliefs & opinions about child custody evaluations. Family Court Review, 49, 301–312. doi:10.1111/fcre.2011.49.issue-2
   Google Scholar
• Bow, J. N., & Quinnell, F. A. (2004). Critique of child custody evaluations by the legal profession. Family Court Review, 42, 115–127. doi:10.1177/1531244504421009
   Google Scholar
• Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101. doi:10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
   Google Scholar
• Budd, K. S. (2001). Assessing parenting competence in child protection cases: A clinical practice model. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4, 1–18. doi:10.1023/A:1009548509598
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budd, K. S. (2005). Assessing parenting capacity in a child welfare context. Children and Youth Services Review, 27, 429–444. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2004.11.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budd, K. S., Felix, E. D., Sweet, S. C., Saul, A., & Carleton, R. A. (2006). Evaluating parents in child protection decisions: An innovative court-based clinic model. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 37, 666–675. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.37.6.666
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budd, K. S., & Greenspan, S. (1985). Parameters of successful and unsuccessful interventions with parents who are mentally retarded. Mental Retardation, 23, 269–273.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Budd, K. S., Naik-Polan, A. T., Felix, E. D., Massey, L. P., & Eisele, H. (2004). Legal use of mental health evaluations in child protection proceedings: An empirical analysis. Family Court Review, 42, 629−640. doi:10.1177/1531244504268825
   Google Scholar
• Budd, K. S., & Springman, R. E. (2011). Empirical analysis of referral issues and ‘ultimate issue’ recommendations for parents in child protection cases. Family Court Review, 49, 34–45. doi:10.1111/fcre.2011.49.issue-1
   Google Scholar
• Callow, E., Tahir, M., & Feldman, M. (2017). Judicial reliance on parental IQ in appellate-level child welfare cases involving parents with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 30, 553–562. doi:10.1111/jar.12296
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CASW (2005). Code of Ethics. https://www.casw-acts.ca/en/what-social-work/casw-code-ethics/code-ethics
   Google Scholar
• Collings, S., & Llewellyn, G. (2012). Children of parents with intellectual disability: Facing poor outcomes or faring okay? Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 37, 65–82. doi:10.3109/13668250.2011.648610
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox, R., Evans, R., & Stenfert Kroese, B. (2014). Solicitors’ experiences of representing parents with learning disabilities in care proceedings: Altering practice and coping with stress. Family Law, 44, 1017–1021.
   Google Scholar
• Curtis, C. (2010). Limits of parenting capacity assessments in child protection cases. Canadian family law quarterly, 28, 1–23.
   Google Scholar
• Darlington, Y., Healy, K., & Feeney, J. A. (2010). Approaches to assessment and intervention across four types of child and family welfare services. Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 356–364. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.10.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donald, T., & Jureidini, J. (2004). Parenting Capacity. Child Abuse Review, 13, 5–17. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1099-0852
   Google Scholar
• Emerson, E., & Brigham, P. (2014). The developmental health of children of parents with intellectual disabilities: Cross sectional study. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35, 917–921. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.01.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman, M., & Aunos, M. (2010). Comprehensive competence-based parenting assessment for parents with learning difficulties and their children. Kingston (NY): NADD Press.
   Google Scholar
• Feldman, M., McConnell, D., & Aunos, M. (2012). Parental cognitive impairment, mental health and child outcomes in child protection population. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disability, 5, 66–90. doi:10.1080/19315864.2011.587632
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman, M. A. (1994). Parenting education for parents with intellectual disability: A review of outcome studies. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 15, 299–332. doi:10.1016/0891-4222(94)90009-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman, M. A. (2002). Parents with intellectual disability and their children: Impediments and supports. In D. Griffiths & P. Federoff (Eds.), Ethical dilemmas: Sexuality and developmental disability (pp. 255–292). Kingston, NY: NADD Press.
   Google Scholar
• Field, M. A., & Sanchez, V. A. (1999). Equal treatment for people with mental retardation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Grandquvist, P., Forslund, T., Fransson, M., Springer, L., & Lindberg, L. (2014). Mothers with intellectual disability, their experiences of maltreatment, and their children’s attachment representations: A small-group matched comparison study. Attachment & Human Development, 16, 417–436. doi:10.1080/14616734.2014.926946
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gur, A., & Stein, M. A. (2019). Social worker perception of grandparent involvement where a parent has an intellectual disability. Analytical Chemistry, 92. doi:10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04535
   Google Scholar
• Harnett, P. H. (2007). A procedure for assessing parents’ capacity for change in child protection cases. Children and Youth Services Review, 29, 1179–1188. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2007.04.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hindmarsh, G., Llewellyn, G., & Emerson, E. (2015). Mothers with intellectual impairment and their 9 month old infants. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 59, 541–550. doi:10.1111/jir.12159
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hindmarsh, G., Llewellyn, G., & Emerson, E. (2017). The social emotional well being of children of mothers with intellectual impairment: A population based analysis. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 30, 469–481. doi:10.1111/jar.2017.30.issue-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hodes, M. W., Meppelder, M., De Moor, M., Kef, S., & Schuengel, C. (2017). Alleviating parenting stress in parents with intellectual disabilities: A randomized controlled trial of a video feedback intervention to promote positive parenting. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 30, 423–432. doi:10.1111/jar.2017.30.issue-3
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• International Association on the Scientific Study in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (IASSIDD) Special Interest Research Group on Parents and Parenting with Intellectual Disabilities. (2008). Parents labeled with intellectual disability: Position of the IASSID SIRG on parents and parenting with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disability, 21, 296–307. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3148.2008.00435.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnston, H., Henaghan, M., & Mirfin-Veitch, B. (2007). The experiences of parents with an intellectual disability within the New Zealand Family Court System. New Zealand Family Law Journal, 5, 226–236.
   Google Scholar
• Kalich, L., Carmichael, B. D., Masson, T., & Blacker, D. (2007). Evaluating the evaluator: Guidelines for legal professionals in assessing the competency of evaluations in termination of parental rights cases. The Journal of Psychiatry and Law, 35, 365–397. doi:10.1177/009318530703500307
   Google Scholar
• Keltner, B. R. (1992). Caregiving by mothers with mental retardation. Family & Community Health, 15, 10–18. doi:10.1097/00003727-199207000-00005
   Google Scholar
• Kirshbaum, M., Taube, D. O., & Baer, R. L. (2003). Parents with disabilities: Problems in family court practice. Journal of the Center for Families. Children & the Courts, 4, 27–48.
   Google Scholar
• Kollinsky, L., Simonds, L. M., & Nixon, J. (2012). Qualitative exploration of the views and experiences of family court magistrates making decisions in care proceedings involving parents with LD. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41, 86–93. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3156.2012.00726.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lightfoot, E., & DeZelar, S. (2016). The experiences and outcomes of children in foster care who were removed because of a parental disability. Children and Youth Services Review, 62, 22–28. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.11.029
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lightfoot, E., Hill, K., & LaLiberte, T. (2010). The inclusion of disability as a condition for termination of parental rights. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 927–934. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.07.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lightfoot, E., LaLiberte, T., & Cho, M. (2017). A case record review of termination of parental rights cases involving parents with a disability. Children and Youth Services Review, 79, 399–407. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.06.037
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lightfoot, E., & Slayter, E. (2014). Disentangling over-representation of parents with disabilities in the child welfare system: Exploring child maltreatment risk factors of parents with disabilities. Children and Youth Services Review, 47, 283–290. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.10.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Llewellyn, G., McConnell, D., Honey, A., Mayes, R., & Russo, D. (2003). Promoting health and home safety for children of parents with intellectual disability: A randomized controlled trial. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 24, 405–431. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2003.06.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luckasson, R., Borthwick-Duffy, S., Buntinx, W. H. E., Coulter, D. L., Craig, E. M., Reeve, R. L., … Tasse, M. J. (2002). Mental Retardation: Definition, classification, and systems of support, 10th edition. Washington, DC: AAMR.
   Google Scholar
• Malacrida, C. (2009). Negotiating the dependency/nurturance tightrope: dilemmas of motherhood and disability. Canadian Review of Sociology, 44, 469–493. doi:10.1111/j.1755-618X.2007.tb01353.x
   Google Scholar
• Mayes, R., & Llewellyn, G. (2009). What happens to parents with intellectual disability following removal their child in child protection proceedings? Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 34, 92–95. doi:10.1080/13668250802688348
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McConnell, D., Feldman, M., Aunos, M., & Prasad, N. (2011). Child maltreatment investigations involving parents with cognitive impairments in Canada. Child Maltreatment, 16, 21–32. doi:10.1177/1077559510388843
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McConnell, D., & Llewellyn, G. (2002). Stereotypes, parents with intellectual disability and child protection. Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law, 24, 297–317. doi:10.1080/09649060210161294
   Google Scholar
• McConnell, D., & Llewellyn, G. (2010). Disability and discrimination in statutory child protection proceedings. Disability & Society, 15, 883–895. doi:10.1080/713662015
   Google Scholar
• McConnell, D., Llewellyn, G., & Ferronato, L. (2000). Parents with a disability and the NSW children’s court. Sydney. Australia: University of Sydney.
   Google Scholar
• McConnell, D., Matthews, J., Llewelly, G., Mildon, R., & Hindmarsh, G. (2008). Healthy start. A national strategy for parents with intellectual disabilities and their children. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 5, 194–202. doi:10.1111/ppi.2008.5.issue-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGaw, S., Ball, K., & Clarke, A. (2002). The effect of group intervention on the relationships of parents with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disability, 15, 354–366. doi:10.1046/j.1468-3148.2002.00143.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGaw, S., Scully, T., & Pritchard, C. (2010). Predicting the unpredictable? Identifying high-risk versus low-risk parents with intellectual disabilities. Child Abuse and Neglect, 34, 699–710. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.02.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGaw, S., Shaw, T., & Beckley, K. (2007). Prevalence of psychopathology across a service population of parents with intellectual disabilities and their children. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 4, 11–22. doi:10.1111/ppi.2007.4.issue-1
   Google Scholar
• Mickelson, P. (1947). The Feeble-minded parent: A Study of 90 family cases: An attempt to isolate factors associated with their successful or unsuccessful parenthood. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 51, 644–653.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• O’Hara, J., & Martin, H. (2003). Parents with learning disabilities: A study of gender and cultural perspectives in east London. British Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 18–24. doi:10.1046/j.1468-3156.2003.00197.x
   Google Scholar
• OPQ. (2018). Code of ethics of psychologists. http://legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/ShowDoc/cr/C-26,%20r.%20212/
   Google Scholar
• Pacheco, L., & McConnell, D. (2017). Love and resistance of mothers with intellectual disability from ethnocultural communities in Canada. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disability, 30, 501–510. doi:10.1111/jar.12342
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel, S. H., & Choate, L. H. (2014). Conducting child custody evaluations: Best practices for mental health counselors who are court-appointed as child custody evaluators. Practice, 36, 18–30.
   Google Scholar
• Platt, D., & Riches, K. (2016). Assessing parenting capacity to change: The missing jigsaw piece in the assessment of a child’s welfare? Children and Youth Services Review, 61, 141–148. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.12.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proctor, S. N., & Azar, S. T. (2012). The effect of parental intellectual disability status on child protection service worker decision making. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 57, 1104–1116. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2012.01623.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice, J. G., & Sigurjónsdóttir, H. B. (2018). Notifying neglect: Child protection as an application of bureaucratic power against marginalized parents. Human Organisation, 77, 112–121. doi:10.17730/0018-7259-77.2.112
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saini, M., & Polak, S. (2014). The ecological validity of parent-child observations: A review of empirical evidence related to custody evaluations. Journal of Child Custody, 11, 181–201. doi:10.1080/15379418.2014.953661
   Google Scholar
• Sattler, J. (2014). Foundations of behavioral, social, and clinical assessment of children (6th ed.). San Diego, CA: Jerome M. Sattler.
   Google Scholar
• Schalock, R. L., Borthwick-Duffy, S. A., Bradley, V. J., Buntinx, W. H. E., Coulter, D. L., Craig, E. M., ... Yeager, M. H.   (2010). Intellectual disability: Definition, classification, and systems of supports. Washington, DC: American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.
   Google Scholar
• Shakespeare, T. (2014). Disability rights and wrongs revisited. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Sigurjónsdóttir, H. B., & Rice, J. G. (2016). Stigmatic representation of intellectual disability and termination of parental custody rights. In K. Scior & S. Werner (Eds.), Intellectual disability and stigma (pp. 77–90). London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Sigurjónsdóttir, H. B. & Rice. (2018). Evidence of neglect as a form of structural violence: Parents with ID and custody deprivation. Social inclusion, 6, 66-73.
   Google Scholar
• Sigurjónsdóttir, H. B., & Rice, J. G. (2017). ‘Framed’: Terminating the parenting rights of parents with intellectual disability in Iceland. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 30, 543–552. doi:10.1111/jar.2017.30.issue-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spath, R., Werrbach, G. B., & Pine, B. A. (2008). Sharing the baton, not passing it: Collaboration between public and private child welfare agencies to reunify families. Journal of Community Practice, 16, 481–507. doi:10.1080/10705420802473766
   Google Scholar
• Spencer, M. (2001). Proceed with caution: The limitations of current parenting capacity assessments. Developing Practice: the Child, Youth and Family Work Journal, 1, 16–24.
   Google Scholar
• Tefre, O. S. (2017). Maternal ID and infant neglect: Child welfare risk assessments in Norway, England and California, USA. British Journal of Social Work, 47, 2014–2031.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theodore, K., Foulds, D., Wishaw, P., Colborn, A., Nga, L. Y., Mallaghan, J., … Skelton, J. (2018). ‘We want to be parents like everybody else’: Stories of parents with learning disabilities. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 64, 184–194. doi:10.1080/20473869.2018.1448233
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tøssebro, J., Midjo, T., Paulsen, V., & Berg, B. (2017). Prevalence, trends and custody among children of parents with intellectual disabilities in Norway. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 30(3), 533–542. doi:10.1111/jar.2017.30.issue-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Traustadóttir, R., & Sigurjónsdóttir, H. B. (2008). The ‘mother’ behind the mother: Three generations of mothers with intellectual disabilities and their family support networks. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 21(4), 331–340. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3148.2008.00450.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tymchuk, A., & Feldman, M. A. (1991). Parents with mental retardation and their children: Review of research relevant to professional practice. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 32, 486–496. doi:10.1037/h0079023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wade, C., Llewellyn, G., & Matthews, J. (2011). Modelling contextual influences on parents with intellectual disabilities and their children. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 116(6), 419–437. doi:10.1352/1944-7558-116.6.419
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wade, C. M., Mildon, R. L., & Matthews, J. M. (2007). Service delivery to parents with an intellectual disability: Family‐centred or professionally centred? Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 20, 87–98. doi:10.1111/jar.2007.20.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waldfogel, J. (2000). Reforming child protection services. Child Welfare, 79(1), 43–57.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, L., & Tarleton, B. (2007). Sinking or swimming? Supporting parents with learning disabilities and their children. Tizard Learning Disability Review, 12, 22–32. doi:10.1108/13595474200700014
   Google Scholar
• Watkins, C. (1995). Beyond status: The Americans with disabilities act and the parental rights of people labeled developmentally disabled or mentally retarded. California Law Review, 83, 1415–1475. doi:10.2307/3480873
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmer, M. H., & Panko, L. M. (2006). Developmental status and service use among children in the child welfare system: A national survey. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160, 183–188. doi:10.1001/archpedi.160.2.183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar