References
- Antwi-Boasiako, K., King, B., Fallon, B., Trocme, N., Fluke, J., Chabot, M., & Esposito, T. (2020). Differences and disparities over time: Black and white families investigated by Ontario’s child welfare system. Child Abuse & Neglect, 107, 104618. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104618
- Anyon, Y. (2011). Reducing racial disparities and disproportionalities in the child welfare system: Policy perspectives about how to serve the best interests of African American youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(2), 242–253. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.09.007
- Baron, E., Goldstein, E., & Wallace, C. (2020). Suffering in silence: How COVID-19 school closures inhibit the reporting of child maltreatment. Journal of Public Economics, 190, 104258. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfmabstract_id=3601399
- Barth, R. P. (2005). Models of disproportionality. In D. M. Derezotes, J. Poertner, & M. Testa (Eds.), Race matters: Examining the overrepresentation of African American children in the child welfare system (pp. 25–46). Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America.
- Barth, R. P., Jonson-Reid, M., Greeson, J. K., Drake, B., Berrick, J. D., Garcia, A. R., & Gyourko, J. R. (2020). Outcomes following child welfare services: What are they and do they differ for black children? Journal of Public Child Welfare, 14(5), 477–499. doi:10.1080/15548732.2020.1814541
- Barth, R. P., Miller, J. M., Green, R., & Baumgartner, J. N. (2001). Children of color in the child welfare system: Toward explaining their disproportionate involvement in comparison to their numbers in the general population. School of Social Work. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina.
- Bullinger, L. R., Boy, A., Feely, M., Messner, S., Raissian, K., Schneider, W., & Self-Brown, S. (2020a). COVID-19 and alleged child maltreatment. SSRN. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3702704. :
- Bullinger, L. R., Carr, J. B., & Packman, A. (2020b) COVID-19 and crime: Effects of stay-at-home orders on domestic violence. American Journal of Health Economics. 7(3), 249–280.
- Chung, G., Lanier, P., & Wong, P. Y. J. (2020). Mediating effects of parental stress on harsh parenting and parent-child relationship during coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in Singapore. Journal of Family Violence, 1–12.
- Cluver, L., Lachman, J. M., Sherr, L., Wessels, I., Krug, E., Rakotomalala, S., … McDonald, K. (2020). Parenting in a time of COVID-19. The Latent, 395(10231).
- Courtney, M. E., Barth, R. P., Berrick, J. D., Brooks, D., Needell, B., & Park, L. (1996). Race and child welfare services: Past research and future directions. Child Welfare, 75(2), 99–137.
- Deater-Deckard, K. (2006). Parenting stress and child adjustment: Some old hypotheses and new questions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 5(3), 314–332.
- Detlaff, A. (2014). The evolving understanding of disproportionality and disparities in child welfare. In J. Korbin & R. D. Krugman (Eds.), Handbook of child maltreatment (pp. 149–160). Dordrecht: Springer.
- Dettlaff, A. J., & Boyd, R. (2020). Racial disproportionality and disparities in the child welfare system: Why do they exist, and what can be done to address them? The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 692(1), 253–274. doi:10.1177/0002716220980329
- Dettlaff, A. J., Rivaux, S. R., Baumann, D. J., Fluke, J. D., Rycraft, J. R., & James, J. (2011). Disentangling substantiation: The influence of race, income, and risk on the substantiation decision in child welfare. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(9), 1630–1637. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.04.005
- Drake, B., Jolley, J. M., Lanier, P., Fluke, J., Barth, R. P., & Jonson-Reid, M. (2011). Racial bias in child protection? A comparison of competing explanations using national data. Pediatrics, 127(3), 471–478. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-1710
- Feely, M., & Adlin Bosk, E. (2021). That which is essential has been made invisible: The need to bring a structural risk perspective to reduce racial disproportionality in child welfare. Race and Social Problems, 13, 49–62.
- Fluke, J. D., Yuan, Y. Y. T., Hedderson, J., & Curtis, P. A. (2003). Disproportionate representation of race and ethnicity in child maltreatment: Investigation and victimization. Children and Youth Services Review, 25(5–6), 359–373. doi:10.1016/S0190-7409(03)00026-4
- Garg, S., Kim, L., & Whitaker, M. (2020). Hospitalization rates and characteristics of patients hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed coronavirus disease 2019—COVID-NET, 14 States. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(15), March 1–30, 2020, 458–464. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6915e3.
- Golberstein, E., Wen, H., & Miller, B. F. (2020). Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and mental health for children and adolescents. JAMA Pediatrics, 174(9), 819–820. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1456
- Griffith, A. K. (2020). Parental burnout and child maltreatment during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Family Violence, 1–7.
- Halperin, D. T. (2020). Coping with COVID-19: Learning from past pandemics to avoid pitfalls and panic. Global Health: Science and Practice, 8(2), 155–165. doi:10.9745/GHSP-D-20-00189
- Herrenkohl, T. I., Scott, D., Higgins, D. J., Kilka, J. B., & Lonne, B. (2021). How COVID-19 is placing vulnerable children at risk and why we need a different approach to child welfare. Child Maltreatment, 26(1), 9–16. doi:10.1177/1077559520963916
- Hill, R. B. (2007). An analysis of racial/ethnic disproportionality and disparity at the national, state, and county levels. Retrieved from: https://racialequity.issuelab.org/resources/8256/8256.pdf
- Huang, H., Williams, A., Park, K., & Ryan, J. (2021). Early stage of the COVID-19 pandemic and investigations of child maltreatment: An empirical study of administrative data. American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children Advisor, 33(2), 26–35.
- Kalil, A., Mayer, S., & Shah, R. (2020). Impact of the COVID-19 crisis on family dynamics in economically vulnerable households. University of Chicago, Becker Friedman Institute for Economics Working Paper (2020-139). SSRN. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3706339
- Keddell, E., & Hyslop, I. (2019). Ethnic inequalities in child welfare: The role of practitioner risk perceptions. Child & Family Social Work, 24(4), 409–420. doi:10.1111/cfs.12620
- Keenan, H. T., Marshall, S. W., Nocera, M. A., & Runyan, D. K. (2004). Increased incidence of inflicted traumatic brain injury in children after a natural disaster. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 26(3), 189–193. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2003.10.023
- Klevens, J., Luo, F., Xu, L., Peterson, C., & Latzman, N. E. (2016). Paid family leave’s effect on hospital admissions for pediatric abusive head trauma. Injury Prevention, 22(6), 442–445. doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2015-041702
- Kovski, N. L., Hill, H. D., Mooney, S. J., Rivara, F. P., & Rowhani-Rahbar, A. (2022). Short-term effects of tax credits on rates of child maltreatment reports in the United States. Pediatrics, 150(1). doi:10.1542/peds.2021-054939
- Krase, K. S. (2013). Differences in racially disproportionate reporting of child maltreatment across report sources. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 7(4), 351–369. doi:10.1080/15548732.2013.798763
- Lawson, M., Piel, M. H., & Simon, M. (2020). Child maltreatment during the COVID-19 pandemic: Consequences of parental job loss on psychological and physical abuse towards children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 110, 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104709
- Leslie, E., & Wilson, R. (2020). Sheltering in place and domestic violence: Evidence from calls for service during COVID-19. Journal of Public Economics, 189, 104241. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104241
- Maguire-Jack, K., Johnson-Motoyama, M., & Parmenter, S. (2021). A scoping review of economic supports for working parents: The relationship of TANF, child care subsidy, SNAP, and EITC to child maltreatment. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 65, 1–9.
- Miller, O. A., & Ward, K. J. (2008). Emerging strategies for reducing racial disproportionality and disparate outcomes in child welfare: The results of a national breakthrough series collaborative. Child Welfare, 87(2).
- Mohamud, F., Edwards, T., Antwi-Boasiako, K., William, K., King, J., Igor, E., & King, B. (2021). Racial disparity in the Ontario child welfare system: Conceptualizing policies and practices that drive involvement for Black families. Children and Youth Services Review, 120(1057), 105711. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105711
- Musser, E. D., Riopelle, C., & Latham, R. (2021). Child maltreatment in the time of COVID-19: Changes in the Florida foster care system surrounding the COVID-10 safer-at-home order. Child Abuse & Neglect, 116(1049), 104945. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.104945
- National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. (2020). NCANDS Child File. Data set. Children's Bureau, Administration for Children And Families. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/data-research/ncands
- Oliver, C. (2020). Expanding role and reach: A community-centered child welfare response to COVID-19. SSRN. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3618161
- Owen, W. F., Carmona, R., & Pomeroy, C. (2020). Failing another national stress test on health disparities. JAMA, 323(19), 1905. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.6547
- Pryce, J., Lee, W., Crowe, E., Park, D., McCarthy, M., & Owens, G. (2018). A case study in public child welfare: County-level practices that address racial disparity in foster care placement. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 12, 13(1.
- Rapoport, E., Reisert, H., Schoeman, E., & Adesman, A. (2020). Reporting of child maltreatment during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in New York City from March to May 2020. Child Abuse & Neglect, 116, 1–7.
- R Core Team (2022). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. https://www.R-project.org
- Rivaux, S. L., James, J., Wittenstrom, K., Baumann, D., Sheets, J., Henry, J., & Jeffries, V. (2008). The intersection of race, poverty, and risk: Understanding the decision to provide services to clients and to remove children. Child Welfare, 87(2), 151–168.
- Robillard, R., Saad, M., Edwards, J., Solomonova, E., Pennestri, M., Daros, A., and Kendzaerska, T. (2020). Social, financial and psychological stress during an emerging pandemic: Observations from apopulation survey in the acute phase of COVID-19. BMJ Open, 10 (12), e043805. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043805
- Rostad, W. L., Klevens, J., Ports, K. A., & Ford, D. C. (2020). Impact of the United States federal child tax credit on childhood injuries and behavior problems. Children & Youth Services Review, 109, 1–5. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104718
- Schmidt, S., & Natanson, H. (2020, April 30). With kids stuck at home, ER doctors see more severe cases of child abuse. Washington Post. Retrieved from: https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2020/04/30/child-abuse-reports-coronavirus/
- Seddighi, H., Salmani, I., Javadi, M. H., & Seddighi, S. (2021). Child abuse in natural disasters and conflicts: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 22(1), 176–185. doi:10.1177/1524838019835973
- Shaw, T. V., Putnam-Hornstein, E., Magruder, J., & Needell, B. (2008). Measuring racial disparity in child welfare. Child Welfare League of America, 87(2), 23–36.
- Slack, K. S., Holl, J. L., McDaniel, M., Yoo, J., & Bolger, K. (2004). Understanding the risks of child neglect: An exploration of poverty and parenting characteristics. Child Maltreatment, 9(4), 395–408. doi:10.1177/1077559504269193
- Swedo, E., Idaikkadar, N., Leemis, R., Dias, T., Radhakrishnan, L., Stein, Z., Holland, K. (2020). Trends in U.S. emergency department visits related to suspected or confirmed child abuse and neglect among children and adolescents aged <18 years before and during the COVID-19 pandemic—United States, January 2019–September 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69 (49), 1841. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6949a1
- Tableau Software, Inc. (2020). Tableau desktop (Professional edition ed.).
- The Annie, E. C. F. (2020). Black children continue to be disproportionately represented in foster care. Kids Count Data Center. Retrieved from: https://datacenter.kidscount.org/updates/show/264-us-foster-care-population-by-race-and-ethnicity
- Usher, K., Bhullar, N., Durkin, J., Gyamfi, N., & Jackson, D. (2020). Family violence and COVID-19: Increased vulnerability and reduced options for support. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, 29(4), 549–552. doi:10.1111/inm.12735
- Wadhera, R. K., Wadhera, P., Gaba, P., Figueroa, J. F., Joynt Maddox, K. E., Yeh, R. W., & Shen, C. (2020). Variation in COVID-19 hospitalizations and deaths across New York City boroughs. JAMA, 323(21), 2192. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.7197
- Webster, S. W., O’Toole, R., O’Toole, A. W., & Lucal, B. (2005). Overreporting and underreporting of child abuse: Teachers’ use of professional discretion. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29(11), 1281–1296. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.02.007
- Williams, C., & Fukuda, J. (2020). What the pandemic taught us: Innovative practice report. Bethany Christian Services. Retrieved from: https://bethany.org/media/resources/blogs/innovative-practice-report-2021.pdf
- Wulczyn, F., Gibbons, R., Snowden, L., & Lery, B. (2013). Poverty, social disadvantage, and the black/white placement gap. Children and Youth Services Review, 35(1), 65–74.
- Xu, Y., Jedwab, M., Soto-Ramírez, N., Levkoff, S. E., & Wu, Q. (2021). Material hardship and child neglect risk amidst COVID-19 in grandparent-headed kinship families: The role of financial assistance. Child Abuse & Neglect, 121, 1–16. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105258
- Yancy, C. W. (2020). COVID-19 and African Americans. JAMA