Health and well-being of first responders: The role of psychological capital, self-compassion, social support, relationship satisfaction, and physical activity

References

• Adams, R. G., & Blieszner, R. (1995). Aging well with friends and family. American Behavioral Scientist, 39(2), 209–224. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764295039002008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antonovsky, A. (1987). Unraveling the mystery of health: How people manage stress and stay well. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Antonovsky, A. (1996). The salutogenic model as a theory to guide health promotion. Health Promotion International, 11(1), 11–18. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/11.1.11
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arble, E., & Arnetz, B. B. (2017). A model of first-responder coping: An approach/avoidance bifurcation. Stress and Health, 33(3), 223–232. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2692
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avey, J. B., Luthans, F., Smith, R. M., & Palmer, N. F. (2010). Impact of positive psychological capital on employee well-being over time. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15(1), 17–28. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016998
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benedek, D. M., Fullerton, C., & Ursano, R. J. (2007). First responders: Mental health consequences of natural and human-made disasters for public health and public safety workers. Annual Review of Public Health, 28, 55–68. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.28.021406.144037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowling, A. (2005). Just one question: If one question works, why ask several? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 59(5), 342–345. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2004.021204
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carr, D. & Springer, K. W. (2010). Advances in families and health research in the 21st century. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 72(3), 743–761. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00728.x
   Google Scholar
• Chida, Y., & Steptoe, A. (2008). Positive psychological well-being and mortality: A quantitative review of prospective observational studies. Psychosomatic Medicine, 70(7), 741–756. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e31818105ba
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297–334. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, G. D., & Walker, R. R. (1991). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support: A confirmation study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47(6), 756–761. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679(199111)47:6<756::AID-JCLP2270470605>3.0.CO;2-L
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Assis, M. A., de Mello, M. F., Scorza, F. A., Cadrobbi, M. P., Schooedl, A. F., Gomes da Silva, S., … Arida, R. M. (2008). Evaluation of physical activity habits in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinics, 63(4), 473–478. doi:https://doi.org/10.1590/S1807-59322008000400010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: An introduction. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9(1), 1–11. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9018-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55(1), 34–43. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.34
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diener, E., & Chan, M. Y. (2011). Happy people live longer: Subjective well‐being contributes to health and longevity. Applied Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 3, 1–43. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2010.01045.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farmer, M. E., Locke, B. Z., Mościcki, E. K., Dannenberg, A. L., Larson, D. B., & Radloff, L. S. (1988). Physical activity and depressive symptoms: The NHANES I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 128(6), 1340–1351. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115087
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J., & Wang, L. (2004). Acute stress disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression in disaster or rescue workers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(8), 1370–1376. doi:https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.8.1370
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geronazzo-Alman, L., Eisenberg, R., Shen, S., Duarte, C. S., Musa, G. J., Wicks, J., … Hoven, C. W. (2017). Cumulative exposure to work-related traumatic events and current post-traumatic stress disorder in New York City’s first responders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 74, 134–143. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2016.12.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendrick, S. S., Dick, A., & Hendrick, C. (1998). The relationship assessment scale. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15(1), 137–142. . doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407598151009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holt-Lunstad, J. (2017). Friendship and health. In M. Hojjat & A. Moyer (Eds.), The psychology of friendship (p. 233–248). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., & Layton, J. B. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: A meta-analytic review. PLoS Medicine, 7(7), e1000316. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Homan, K. J., & Sirois, F. M. (2017). Self-compassion and physical health: Exploring the roles of perceived stress and health-promoting behaviors. Health Psychology Open, 4(2), 205510291772954. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/2055102917729542
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hourani, L. L., Davila, M. I., Morgan, J., Meleth, S., Ramirez, D., Lewis, G., … Lewis, A. (2020). Mental health, stress, and resilience correlates of heart rate variability among military reservists, guardsmen, and first responders. Physiology & Behavior, 214, 112734. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112734
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howell, R. T., Kern, M. L., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2007). Health benefits: Meta-analytically determining the impact of well-being on objective health outcomes. Health Psychology Review, 1(1), 83–136. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/17437190701492486
   Google Scholar
• Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, S. (2017). Describing the mental health profile of first responders: A systematic review. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 23(3), 200–214. Doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1078390317695266
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamp Dush, C. M., & Taylor, M. G. (2012). Trajectories of marital conflict across the life course: Predictors and interactions with marital happiness trajectories. Journal of Family Issues, 33(3), 341–368.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kamp Dush, C. M., Taylor, M. G., & Kroeger, R. A. (2008). Marital happiness and psychological well-being across the life course. Family Relations, 57(2), 211–226. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2008.00495.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kansky, J. (2018). What’s love got to do with it?: Romantic relationships and well-being. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay (Eds.), Handbook of well-being. Salt Lake City, UT: DEF Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Kirschner, H., Kuyken, W., Wright, K., Roberts, H., Brejcha, C., & Karl, A. (2019). Soothing your heart and feeling connected: A new experimental paradigm to study the benefits of self-compassion. Clinical Psychological Science, 7(3), 545–565. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702618812438
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim, B., & Westphal, M. (2011). Mental health in first responders: A review and recommendation for prevention and intervention strategies. Traumatology, 17(4), 17–24. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765611429079
   Google Scholar
• Kline, R. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest.
   Google Scholar
• Kwak, S. K., & Kim, J. H. (2017). Statistical data preparation: Management of missing values and outliers. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology, 70(4), 407–411. doi:https://doi.org/10.4097/kjae.2017.70.4.407
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavner, J. A., & Bradbury, T. N. (2010). Patterns of change in marital satisfaction over the newlywed years. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 72(5), 1171–1187. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00757.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, S., Faust, L., Robles-Granda, P., Kajdanowicz, T., & Chawla, N. V. (2019). Social network structure is predictive of health and wellness. PLoS One, 14(6), e0217264. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217264
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lorenz, T., Beer, C., Pütz, J., & Heinitz, K. (2016). Measuring psychological capital: Construction and validation of the Compound PsyCap Scale (CPC-12). PLoS One, 11(4), e0152892. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0152892
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/leadershipfacpub/11
   Google Scholar
• Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., Sweetman, D. S., & Harms, P. D. (2013). Meeting the leadership challenge of employee well-being through relationship PsyCap and health PsyCap. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 20(1), 118–133. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051812465893
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luthans, F., & Youssef-Morgan, C. M. (2017). Psychological capital: An evidence-based positive approach. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4(1), 339–366. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113324
   Google Scholar
• Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131(6), 803–855. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmar, C. R., McCaslin, S. E., Metzler, T. J., Best, S., Weiss, D. S., Fagan, J., … Neylan, T. (2006). Predictors of posttraumatic stress in police and other first responders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071(1), 1–18. doi:https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1364.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall, A. L., Smith, B. J., Bauman, A. E., & Kaur, S. (2005). Reliability and validity of a brief physical activity assessment for use by family doctors. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39(5), 294–297. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2004.013771
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKeon, G., Steel, Z., Wells, R., Newby, J. M., Hadzi-Pavlovic, D., Vancampfort, D., & Rosenbaum, S. (2019). Mental health informed physical activity for first responders and their support partner: A protocol for a stepped-wedge evaluation of an online, codesigned intervention. British Medical Journal, 9(9), e030668. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019-030668
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merz, E.-M., Consedine, N. S., Schulze, H.-J., & Schuengel, C. (2009). Well-being of adult children and ageing parents: Associations with intergenerational support and relationship quality. Ageing and Society, 29(5), 783–802. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X09008514
   Google Scholar
• Meyer, T., & Broocks, A. (2000). Therapeutic impact of exercise on psychiatric diseases: Guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. Sports Medicine, 30(4), 269–279. doi:https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200030040-00003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mittelmark, M. B., & Bauer, G. F. (2017). The meanings of salutogenesis. In: M. Mittelmark (Ed.), The handbook of salutogenesis. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D. (2003). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2(2), 85–101. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860390129863
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D. (2016). The self-compassion scale is a valid and theoretically coherent measure of self-compassion. Mindfulness, 7(1), 264–274. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0479-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D., & Germer, C. (2017). Self-compassion and psychological well-being. In J. Doty (Ed.) Oxford handbook of compassion science. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Neff, K. D., & Knox, M. (2017). Self-compassion. In V. Zeigler-Hill & T. Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of personality and individual differences. New York, NY: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Ozbay, F., Johnson, D. C., Dimoulas, E., Morgan, C. A., Charney, D., & Southwick, S. (2007). Social support and resilience to stress: From neurobiology to clinical practice. Psychiatry, 4(5), 35–40.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pateraki, E., & Roussi, P. (2013). Marital quality and well-being: The role of gender, marital duration, social support and cultural context. In A. Michalos (Ed.), Social indicators research series (pp. 125–145). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Pedersen, J. E., Ugelvig Petersen, K., Ebbehøj, N. E., Bonde, J. P., & Hansen, J. (2018). Incidence of cardiovascular disease in a historical cohort of Danish firefighters. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 75(5), 337–343. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2017-104734
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pietrantoni, L., & Prati, G. (2008). Resilience among first responders. African Health Sciences, 8(S), 14–20.
   Google Scholar
• Prati, G., & Pietrantoni, L. (2010). The relation of perceived and received social support to mental health among first responders: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(3), 403–417. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20371
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raes, F., Pommier, E., Neff, K. D., & Van Gucht, D. (2011). Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the self-compassion scale. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 18(3), 250–255. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.702
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberson, P. N. E., Norona, J. C., Lenger, K. A., & Olmstead, S. B. (2018). How do relationship stability and quality affect well-being? Romantic relationship trajectories, depressive symptoms, and life satisfaction across 30 Years. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(7), 2171–2184. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1052-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruegsegger, G.N., & Booth, F.W. (2018). Health benefits of exercise. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine, 8(7), a029694. doi:https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a029694
   Google Scholar
• Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 719–727. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnurr, P. P., & Spiro, A., III. (1999). Combat disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and health behaviors as predictors of self-reported physical health in older veterans. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 187(6), 353–359.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sebern, M., & Riegel, B. (2009). Contributions of supportive relationships to heart failure self-care. European Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing, 8(2), 97–104. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejcnurse.2008.07.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shor, E., Roelfs, D. J., & Yogev, T. (2013). The strength of family ties: A meta-analysis and meta-regression of self-reported social support and mortality. Social Networks, 35(4), 626–638. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2013.08.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanley, I. H., Hom, M. A., & Joiner, T. E. (2016). A systematic review of suicidal thoughts and behaviors among police officers, firefighters, EMTs, and paramedics. Clinical Psychology Review, 44, 25–44. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.12.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Superko, H. R., Momary, K. M., Pendyala, L. K., Williams, P. T., Frohwein, S., Garrett, B. C., … Polite, S. (2011). Firefighters, heart disease, and aspects of insulin resistance. The FEMA firefighter heart disease prevention study. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 53(7), 758–7641.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tennant, R., Hiller, L., Fishwick, R., Platt, S., Joseph, S., Weich, S., … Stewart-Brown, S. (2007). The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS): Development and UK validation. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 5, 63. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-5-63
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, P. A., Liu, H., & Umberson, D. (2017). Family relationships and well-being. Innovation in Aging, 1(3), igx025. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/geroni/igx025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uchino, B. N. (2006). Social support and health: A review of physiological processes potentially underlying links to disease outcomes. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29(4), 377–387. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-006-9056-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Horst, M., & Coffé, H. (2012). How friendship network characteristics influence subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research, 107(3), 509–529. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9861-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varvarigou, V., Farioli, A., Korre, M., Sato, S., Dahabreh, I. J., & Kales, S. N. (2014). Law enforcement duties and sudden cardiac death among police officers in United States: Case distribution study. British Medical Journal, 349, 6534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughn, M., & Matyastik Baier, M. E. (1999). Reliability and validity of the relationship assessment scale. The American Journal of Family Therapy, 27(2), 137–147. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/019261899262023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viswesvaran, C., Sanchez, J. I., & Fisher, J. (1999). The role of social support in the process of work stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54(2), 314–334. doi:https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1998.1661
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanous, J. P., & Reichers, A. E. (1996). Estimating the reliability of a single-item measure. Psychological Reports, 78(2), 631–634. doi:https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1996.78.2.631
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warren, R., Smeets, E., & Neff, K. D. (2016). Self-criticism and self-compassion: Risk and resilience for psychopathology. Current Psychiatry, 15(12), 18–32.
   Google Scholar
• WHO. (2020). World health statistics 2020: Monitoring health for the SDGs, sustainable development goals. Geneva: World Health Organization. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
   Google Scholar
• Youssef-Morgan, C. M., & Luthans, F. (2015). Psychological capital and well-being. Stress and Health, 31(3), 180–188. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2623
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zessin, U., Dickhäuser, O., & Garbade, S. (2015). The relationship between self- compassion and well-being: A meta-analysis. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 7(3), 340–364. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12051
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimet, G. D., Powell, S. S., Farley, G. K., Werkman, S., & Berkoff, K. A. (1990). Psychometric characteristics of the Multidimensional Scale of perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55(3–4), 610–617.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar