1,991
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Editorials

Closing the xylazine knowledge gap

ORCID Icon

References

  • Kroneberg G, Oberdorf A, Hoffmeister F, et al. [On the pharmacology of 2-(2,6-dimethylphenylamino)-4H-5,6-dihydro-1,3-thiazine (Bayer 1470), a substance inhibitory for adrenergic and cholinergic neurons]. Naunyn-Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmak u Exp Path. 1967;256(2):257–280. doi: 10.1007/BF00539619.
  • Kroneberg G, Oberdorf A, Hoffmeister F, et al. [Adrenergic-cholinergic neuron inhibition substances]. Naturwissenschaften. 1966;53(19):502–502. doi: 10.1007/BF00622991.
  • Oberdorf A, Hoffmeister F, Kroneberg G. On the mechanism of action of new drugs effective upon the autonomic and central nervous system. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Exp Pathol Pharmakol. 1967;257(1):48–49.
  • Greene SA, Thurmon JC. Xylazine – a review of its pharmacology and use in veterinary medicine. J Vet Pharmacol Ther. 1988;11(4):295–313. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2885.1988.tb00189.x.
  • Hopkins TJ. The clinical pharmacology of xylazine in cattle. Aust Vet J. 1972;48(3):109–112. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1972.tb02228.x.
  • AnaSed® (xylazine hydrochloride) [prescribing information]. Gurnee, IL: Akorn Operating Company LLC; 2022.
  • Anada® (xylazine) [prescribing information]. Dublin, OH: Covetrus; 2020.
  • Paddleford RR, Harvey RC. Alpha 2 agonists and antagonists. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 1999;29(3):737–745. doi: 10.1016/s0195-5616(99)50058-2.
  • Torruella RA. Xylazine (veterinary sedative) use in Puerto Rico. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2011;6(1):7. doi: 10.1186/1747-597X-6-7.
  • Kariisa M, O’Donnell J, Kumar S, et al. Illicitly manufactured fentanyl-Involved overdose deaths with detected xylazine - United States, January 2019-June 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023;72(26):721–727. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7226a4.
  • Kariisa M, Patel P, Smith H, et al. Notes from the field: xylazine detection and involvement in drug overdose deaths - United States, 2019. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021;70(37):1300–1302. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7037a4.
  • Cano M, Daniulaitye R, Marsiglia F. Xylazine in drug seizure reports and overdose deaths in the US, 2018-2022. medRxiv. 2023. doi: 10.1101/2023.08.24.23294567.
  • Health Canada. Spotlight: the emergence of Xylazine in Canada; 2023 [cited 2023 Dec 6]. Available from: https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/publications/healthy-living/emergence-xylazine-canada.html
  • Rock KL, Lawson AJ, Duffy J, et al. The first drug-related death associated with xylazine use in the UK and Europe. J Forensic Leg Med. 2023;97:102542. doi: 10.1016/j.jflm.2023.102542.
  • European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. The drug situation in Europe up to 2023 – an overview and assessment of emerging threats and new developments (European Drug Report 2023). 2023 [cited 2023 Dec 13]. Available from: https://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/european-drug-report/2023/drug-situation-in-europe-up-to-2023_en
  • Choon LK, Khiruddin AI, Annuar W, et al. A case series of accidental xylazine intoxication in humans; is there a role of naloxone as an antidote? Turk J Emerg Med. 2023;23(2):119–122. doi: 10.4103/tjem.tjem_198_22.
  • National Institutes of Health. Xylazine appears to worsen the life-threatening effects of opioids in rats. 2023 [cited 2023 Dec 6]. Available from: https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/xylazine-appears-worsen-life-threatening-effects-opioids-rats
  • United States Drug Enforcement Administration. DEA reports widespread threat of fentanyl mixed with xylazine. 2023 [cited 2023 Dec 6]. Available from: https://www.dea.gov/alert/dea-reports-widespread-threat-fentanyl-mixed-xylazine
  • The White House Office of National Drug Control Policy. Biden-Harris administration designates fentanyl combined with xylazine as an emerging threat to the United States Washington, DC. 2023 [cited 2023 Dec 6]. Available from: https://www.whitehouse.gov/ondcp/briefing-room/2023/04/12/biden-harris-administration-designates-fentanyl-combined-with-xylazine-as-an-emerging-threat-to-the-united-states/
  • Hoffmann U, Meister CM, Golle K, et al. Severe intoxication with the veterinary tranquilizer xylazine in humans. J Anal Toxicol. 2001;25(4):245–249. doi: 10.1093/jat/25.4.245.
  • Spoerke DG, Hall AH, Grimes MJ, et al. Human overdose with the veterinary tranquilizer xylazine. Am J Emerg Med. 1986;4(3):222–224. doi: 10.1016/0735-6757(86)90070-7.
  • Gallanosa AG, Spyker DA, Shipe JR, et al. Human xylazine overdose: a comparative review with clonidine, phenothiazines, and tricyclic antidepressants. Clin Toxicol. 1981;18(6):663–678. doi: 10.3109/15563658108990293.
  • Samanta A, Roffe C, Woods KL. Accidental self administration of xylazine in a veterinary nurse. Postgrad Med J. 1990;66(773):244–245. doi: 10.1136/pgmj.66.773.244.
  • Ruiz-Colón K, Chavez-Arias C, Díaz-Alcalá JE, et al. Xylazine intoxication in humans and its importance as an emerging adulterant in abused drugs: a comprehensive review of the literature. Forensic Sci Int. 2014;240:1–8. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.03.015.
  • Stillwell ME. A reported case involving impaired driving following self-administration of xylazine. Forensic Sci Int. 2003;134(1):25–28. doi: 10.1016/s0379-0738(03)00083-5.
  • Arican FO, Okan T, Badak O, et al. An unusual presentation from xylazine-ketamine. Vet Hum Toxicol. 2004;46(6):324–325.
  • O’Neil J, Kovach S. Xylazine-associated skin injury. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(24):2274–2274. doi: 10.1056/NEJMicm2303601.
  • Malayala SV, Papudesi BN, Bobb R, et al. Xylazine-induced skin ulcers in a person who injects drugs in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. Cureus. 2022;14(8):e28160. doi: 10.7759/cureus.28160.
  • Haskin A, Kim N, Aguh C. A new drug with a nasty bite: a case of Krokodil-induced skin necrosis in an intravenous drug user. JAAD Case Rep. 2016;2(2):174–176. doi: 10.1016/j.jdcr.2016.02.007.
  • Sorrentino A, Trotta S, Colucci AP, et al. Lethal endomyocarditis caused by chronic “krokodil” intoxication. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2018;14(2):229–235. doi: 10.1007/s12024-018-9967-9.
  • CNN. Flesh-eating ‘zombie’ drug ‘kills you from the inside out’. 2013 [cited 2023 Dec 6]. Available from: https://www.cnn.com/2013/10/16/health/krokodil-zombie-drug/index.html
  • Hussey HH, Katz S. Infections resulting from narcotic addiction: report of 102 cases. Am J Med. 1950;9(2):186–193. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(50)90021-0.
  • Orangio G, Pitlick SD, Della Latta P, et al. Soft tissue infections in parenteral drug abusers. Ann Surg. 1984;199(1):97–100. doi: 10.1097/00000658-198401000-00016.
  • Callahan TE, Schecter WP, Horn JK. Necrotizing soft tissue infection masquerading as cutaneous abscess following illicit drug injection. Arch Surg. 1998;133(8):812–818. doi: 10.1001/archsurg.133.8.812.
  • Delcher C, Anthony N, Mir M. Xylazine-involved fatal overdoses and localized geographic clustering: cook county, IL, 2019-2022. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2023;249:110833. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2023.110833.
  • Reed MK, Imperato NS, Bowles JM, et al. Perspectives of people in Philadelphia who use fentanyl/heroin adulterated with the animal tranquilizer xylazine; making a case for xylazine test strips. Drug Alcohol Depend Rep. 2022;4:100074. doi: 10.1016/j.dadr.2022.100074.
  • Friedman NMG, Molina CA, Glenn MJ. Harm reduction and emergency medical services: opportunities for evidence-based programming. Am J Emerg Med. 2023;72:85–87. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2023.07.025.
  • Quijano T, Crowell J, Eggert K, et al. Xylazine in the drug supply: emerging threats and lessons learned in areas with high levels of adulteration. Int J Drug Policy. 2023;120:104154. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2023.104154.
  • Ball NS, Knable BM, Relich TA, et al. Xylazine poisoning: a systematic review. Clin Toxicol. 2022;60(8):892–901. doi: 10.1080/15563650.2022.2063135.
  • Snow J, Kao L, Williams K. Profound QT prolongation after attempted suicide with intravenous xylazine hydrochloride. Clin Toxicol. 2014;52(7):811.
  • Forrester MB. Xylazine exposures reported to Texas poison centers. J Emerg Med. 2016;51(4):389–393. doi: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2015.09.051.
  • Love JS, Levine M, Aldy K, et al. Opioid overdoses involving xylazine in emergency department patients: a multicenter study. Clin Toxicol. 2023;61(3):173–180. doi: 10.1080/15563650.2022.2159427.
  • Vohra V, Stroh-Steiner GK, Jones P. Qualitative and quantitative characteristics of xylazine-associated deaths detected using a post-mortem toxicology testing program. Clin Toxicol. 2023;61(12):1041–1047.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.