Combining Theoretical Models of Perceived Risk and Fear of Gang Crime among Whites and Latinos

REFERENCES

• Anderson , E. 1990 . Streetwise: Race, class and change in an urban community , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Baldassare , M. 2000 . California in the new millennium: The changing social and political landscape , Berkeley : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Baldassare , M. and Associates . 1994 . Drug Abuse is Life Abuse survey: Third annual study, June 1994 (Final Report) , Orange County, CA : Baldassare & Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Baumer , T. L. 1978 . Research on fear of crime in the United States . Victimology , 3 : 254 – 264 .
   Google Scholar
• Bollen , K. A. 1989 . Structural equations with latent variables , New York : John Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Browning , S. L. and Cao , L. 1992 . The impact of race on criminal justice ideology . Justice Quarterly , 9 : 685 – 701 .
   Google Scholar
• Bursik , R. J. Jr. 2002 . “ The systemic model of gang behavior: A reconsideration ” . In Gangs in America , Edited by: Ronald Huff , C. Vol. 3 , 71 – 81 . Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Bursik , R. J. Jr. and Grasmick , H. G. 1993 . Neighborhoods and crime: The dimensions of effective community control , Lexington, MA : Lexington Books .
   Google Scholar
• Capizzi , M. 1998 . 1997 annual report gang unit and Tri-Agency Resource, Gang Enforcement Teams (TARGET) , Orange County, CA : Orange County District Attorney's Office .
   Google Scholar
• Chiricos , T. , Hogan , M. and Gertz , M. 1997 . Racial composition of neighborhood and fear of crime . Criminology , 35 : 107 – 131 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiricos , T. , Padgett , K. and Gertz , M. 2000 . Fear, TV news, and the reality of crime . Criminology , 38 : 755 – 785 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , L. W. , Kluegel , J. R. and Land , K. C. 1981 . Social inequality and predatory criminal victimization: An exposition and test of a formal theory . American Sociological Review , 46 : 505 – 524 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Covington , J. and Taylor , R. B. 1991 . Fear of crime in urban residential neighborhoods: Implications of between- and within-neighborhood sources for current models . Sociological Quarterly , 32 : 231 – 249 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Decker , S. H. and Van Winkle , B. 1996 . Life in the gang: Family, friends, and violence , New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dunham , R. G. and Alpert , G. P. 1988 . Neighborhood differences in attitudes toward policing: Evidence for a mixed-strategy model of policing in a multi-ethnic setting . Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology , 79 : 504 – 523 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferraro , K. F. 1995 . Fear of crime: Interpreting victimization risk , New York : State University of New York Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ferraro , K. F. 1996 . Women's fear of victimization: Shadow of sexual assault? . Social Forces , 75 : 667 – 690 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flanagan , T. J. and Longmire , D. R. , eds. 1996 . Americans view crime and justice: A national public opinion survey , Thousand Oaks : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Frey , J. H. 1989 . Survey research by telephone , 2nd , Newbury Park : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Gaquin , D. A. and DeBrandt , K. A. 2000 . 2000 county and city extra: Annual metro, city, and county data book , 9th , Lanham, MD : Bernan Press .
   Google Scholar
• Garofalo , J. and Laub , J. 1978 . The fear of crime: Broadening our perspective . Victimology , 3 : 242 – 253 .
   Google Scholar
• Gibson , C. L. , Zhao , J. , Lovrich , N. P. and Gaffney , M. J. 2002 . Social integration, individual perceptions of collective efficacy, and fear of crime in three cities . Justice Quarterly , 19 : 537 – 564 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haghighi , B. and Sorenson , J. 1996 . “ America's fear of crime ” . In Americans view crime and justice: A national public opinion survey , Edited by: Flanagan , T. J. and Longmire , D. R. 16 – 30 . Thousand Oaks : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Hastings , A. L. 2007 . Introduction of the path to success: Gang Prevention through Community Partnerships Act . Congressional Record , 24 July : E1612
   Google Scholar
• Horowitz , R. 1987 . Community tolerance of gang violence . Social Problems , 34 : 437 – 450 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunter , A. and Baumer , T. L. 1982 . Street traffic, social integration, and fear of crime . Sociological Inquiry , 52 : 122 – 131 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz , C. M. , Webb , V. J. and Armstrong , T. A. 2003 . Fear of gangs: A test of alternative theoretical models . Justice Quarterly , 20 : 95 – 130 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein , M. W. 1995 . The American street gang: Its nature, prevalence, and control , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• LaGrange , R. L , Ferraro , K. F. and Supancic , M. 1992 . Perceived risk and fear of crime: Role of social and physical incivilities . Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency , 29 : 311 – 334 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane , J. 2002 . Fear of crime: A qualitative examination of the four perspectives . Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency , 39 : 437 – 471 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane , J. and Meeker , J. W. 2000 . Subcultural diversity and the fear of crime and gangs . Crime & Delinquency , 46 : 497 – 521 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane , J. and Meeker , J. W. 2003a . Fear of gang crime: A look at three theoretical models . Law & Society Review , 37 : 425 – 456 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane , J. and Meeker , J. W. 2003b . Women's and men's fear of gang crimes: Sexual and nonsexual assault as perceptually contemporaneous offenses . Justice Quarterly , 20 : 337 – 371 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane , J. and Meeker , J. W. 2004 . Social disorganization perceptions, fear of gang crime, and behavioral precautions among whites, Latinos, and Vietnamese . Journal of Criminal Justice , 32 : 49 – 62 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane , J. and Meeker , J. W. 2005 . Theories and fear of gang crime among whites and Latinos: A replication and extension of prior research . Journal of Criminal Justice , 33 : 627 – 641 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis , D. A. and Maxfield , M. 1980 . Fear in the neighborhoods: An investigation of the impact of crime . Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency , 17 : 160 – 189 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis , D. A. and Salem , G. 1986 . Fear of crime: Incivility and the production of a social problem , New Brunswick : Transaction Books .
   Google Scholar
• Liska , A. E. , Lawrence , J. J. and Sanchirico , A. 1982 . Fear of crime as a social fact . Social Forces , 60 : 760 – 770 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madriz , E. 1997 . Nothing bad happens to good girls: Fear of crime in women's lives , Berkeley : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Markowitz , F. E. , Bellair , P. E. , Liska , A. E. and Liu , J. 2001 . Extending social disorganization theory: Modeling the relationships between cohesion, disorder, and fear . Criminology , 39 : 293 – 319 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGarrell , E. F. , Giacomazzi , A. L. and Thurman , Q. C. 1997 . Neighborhood disorder, integration and the fear of crime . Justice Quarterly , 14 : 479 – 500 .
   Google Scholar
• Meeker , J. W. , Parsons , K. J. B. and Vila , B. J. 2002 . “ Developing a GIS-based regional gang incident tracking system ” . In Responding to gangs: Evaluation and research , Edited by: Reed , W. L. and Decker , S. H. 289 – 329 . Washington, DC : National Institute of Justice .
   Google Scholar
• Merry , S. E. 1981 . Urban danger: Life in a neighborhood of strangers , Philadelphia, PA : Temple University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Miller , W. B. 2001 . The growth of youth gang problems in the United States , 1970 – 98 . Washington, DC : Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention .
   Google Scholar
• Moore , J. W. 1978 . Homeboys: Gangs, drugs, and prison in the barrios of Los Angeles , Philadelphia, PA : Temple University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Moore , J. W. 1991 . Going down to the barrio: Homeboys and homegirls in change , Philadelphia, PA : Temple University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Nellis , A. M. 2009 . “ Fear of terrorism ” . In Terrorism in America , Edited by: Borgeson , K. and Valeri , R. 117 – 144 . Boston : Jones and Bartlett Press .
   Google Scholar
• Parker , K. D. 1988 . Black-white differences in perceptions of fear of crime . Journal of Social Psychology , 128 : 487 – 494 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker , K. D. , McMorris , B. J. , Smith , E. and Murty , K. S. 1993 . Fear of crime and the likelihood of victimization: A bi-ethnic comparison . Journal of Social Psychology , 133 : 723 – 732 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkins , D. D. , Florin , P. , Rich , R. C. , Wandersman , A. and Chavis , D. M. 1990 . Participation and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: Crime and community context . American Journal of Community Psychology , 18 : 83 – 115 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkins , D. D. , Meeks , J. W. and Taylor , R. B. 1992 . The physical environment of street blocks and resident perceptions of crime and disorder: Implications for theory and measurement . Journal of Environmental Psychology , 12 : 21 – 34 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perkins , D. D. and Taylor , R. B. 1996 . Ecological assessments of community disorder: Their relationship to fear of crime and theoretical implications . American Journal of Community Psychology , 24 : 63 – 107 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rackauckas , T. 1999 . 1998 annual report: Gang Unit and Tri-Agency Resource, Gang Enforcement Teams (TARGET) , Orange County, CA : Orange County District Attorney's Office .
   Google Scholar
• Rountree , P. W. and Land , K. C. 1996 . Perceived risk versus fear of crime: Empirical evidence of conceptually distinct reactions in survey data . Social Forces , 74 : 1353 – 1376 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sampson , R. J. 1993 . “ The community context of violent crime ” . In Sociology and the Public Agenda , Edited by: Wilson , W. J. 259 – 286 . Newbury Park : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Sampson , R. J. and Bartusch , D. J. 1998 . Legal cynicism and (subcultural?) tolerance of deviance: The neighborhood context of racial differences . Law and Society Review , 32 : 777 – 804 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sampson , R. J. and Groves , W. B. 1989 . Community structure and crime: Testing social disorganization theory . American Journal of Sociology , 94 : 774 – 802 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skogan , W. G. 1990 . Disorder and decline: Crime and the spiral of decay in American neighborhoods , New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Skogan , W. G. 1995 . Crime and the racial fears of white Americans . Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , 539 : 59 – 71 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skogan , W. G. 1999 . “ Measuring what matters: Crime, disorder, and fear ” . In Measuring what matters: Proceedings from the Policing Research Institute Meetings , Edited by: Langworthy , R. H. 37 – 53 . Washington, DC : National Institute of Justice .
   Google Scholar
• Skogan , W. G. and Hartnett , S. M. 1997 . Community policing Chicago style , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Skogan , W. G. and Maxfield , M. G. 1981 . Coping with crime: Individual and neighborhood reactions , Beverly Hills, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Skogan , W. G. , Steiner , L. , DuBois , J. , Gudell , E. , Fagan , A. , Kim , J. and Block , R. 2000 . Community Policing in Chicago, Year Seven: An Interim Report , Chicago : Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority .
   Google Scholar
• St. John , C. and Heald-Moore , T. 1996 . Racial prejudice and fear of criminal victimization by strangers in public settings . Social Inquiry , 66 : 267 – 284 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taub , R. P. , Taylor , D. G. and Dunham , J. D. 1984 . Paths of neighborhood change: Race and crime in urban America , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , R. B. 1996 . Neighborhood responses to disorder and local attachments: The systemic model of attachment, social disorganization, and neighborhood use value . Sociological Forum , 11 : 41 – 74 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , R. B. 1999 . Crime, grime, fear and decline: A longitudinal look , Washington, DC : Department of Justice .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , R. B. 2001 . Breaking away from broken windows: Baltimore neighborhoods and the nationwide fight against crime, grime, fear, and decline , Boulder, CO : Westview .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , R. B. and Covington , J. 1993 . Community structural change and fear of crime . Social Problems , 40 : 374 – 395 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , R. B. and Hale , M. 1986 . Testing alternative models of fear of crime . Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology , 77 : 151 – 189 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , R. B. , Shumaker , S. A. and Gottfredson , S. D. 1985 . Neighborhood-level links between physical features and local sentiments: Deterioration, fear of crime, and confidence . Journal of Architectural and Planning Research , 2 : 261 – 275 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuch , S. A. and Weitzer , R. 1997 . Racial differences in attitudes toward the police . Public Opinion Quarterly , 61 : 642 – 663 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2001). Census 2000 paints statistical portrait of the nation's Hispanic population. http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2001/cb01-81.html (http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2001/cb01-81.html) (Accessed: 19 January 2006 ).
   Google Scholar
• U.S. House of Representatives . Administration's anti-gang and youth violence initiative . Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime. 105th Cong., 1st Sess .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. House of Representatives . Gang-related witness intimidation and retaliation . Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Crime, 105th Cong., 1st Sess .
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Senate . The gang problem in America: Formulating an effective federal response . Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Juvenile Justice. 103rd Cong., 2nd Sess .
   Google Scholar
• Venkatesh , S. A. 1996 . “ The gang in the community ” . In Gangs in America , 2nd , Edited by: Ronald Huff , C. 241 – 256 . Thousand Oaks : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Warr , M. 1994 . “ Public perceptions and reactions to violent offending and victimization ” . In Understanding and preventing violence: Consequences and control , Edited by: Reiss , A. J. Jr. and Roth , J. A. Vol. 4 , 1 – 66 . Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• Warr , M. 2000 . “ Fear of crime in the United States: Avenues for research and policy ” . In Measurement and analysis of crime and justice: Criminal Justice 2000 , Edited by: Duffee , D. Vol. 4 , 452 – 489 . Washington, DC : National Institute of Justice .
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , J. Q. and Kelling , G. L. 1982 . Broken windows: The police and neighborhood safety . The Atlantic Monthly , 249 : 29 – 38 .
   Google Scholar
• Zatz , M. S. and Portillos , E. L. 2000 . Voices from the barrio: Chicano/a gangs, families and communities . Criminology , 38 : 369 – 401 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar