References
- ALERRT Center. (2004). Avoid, deny, defend. Texas State University. Retrieved from http://www.avoiddenydefend.org/
- ALICE Training Institute. (2020). ALICE: An easy to remember acronym. Author. Retrieved from https://www.alicetraining.com/our-program/alice-training/
- American Psychological Association. (2018). Stress in America generation Z. Author.
- American Psychological Association. (2019). Stress in America 2019. Author.
- Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (2010). The psychology of criminal conduct (5th ed.). Anderson.
- Andrews, D. A., Bonta, J., & Hoge, R. D. (1990). Classification for effective rehabilitation: Rediscovering psychology. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 17(1), 19–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854890017001004
- Baer, R. D., Zarger, R. K., Ruiz, E., Noble, C., & Weller, S. C. (2014). Lockdown: Applied anthropology and the study of campus emergencies. Human Organization, 73(4), 326–339. https://doi.org/10.17730/humo.73.4.a4j559nm2h17p177
- Barton, C. (2020, January 8). ALICE is overstating the effectiveness of its active shooter trainings. The Trace. Retrieved from https://www.thetrace.org/2020/01/alice-training-institute-school-shooting-examples/
- Blad, E., & Will, M. (2019, March 24). ‘I felt more traumatized than trained’: Active-shooter drills take toll on teachers. Education Week. Retrieved from https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2019/03/24/i-felt-more-traumatized-thantrained-active-shooter.html
- Christakis, E. (2019, March). Active-shooter drills are misguided. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/03/active-shooter-drills-erika-christakis/580426/
- Corley, C. (2018, March 8). Do police officers in school really make them safer? NPR. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/2018/03/08/591753884/do-police-officers-in-schools-really-make-them-safer
- Cornell, D. (2015). Our schools are safe: Challenging the misperception that schools are dangerous places. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 85(3), 217–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000064
- Cullen, D. (2019). Parkland: Birth of a movement. HarperLuxe.
- Cullen, F. T., & Jonson, C. L. (2017). Correctional theory: Context and consequences (2nd ed.). Sage.
- Dickson, M. J., & Vargo, K. K. (2017). Training kindergarten students lockdown drill procedures using behavioral skills training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 50(2), 407–412. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.369
- Education Week Research Center. (2019). Map: How much money each state spends per student. Education Week. Retrieved from https://www.edweek.org/ew/collections/quality-counts-2019-state-finance/map-per-pupil-spending-state-by-state.html
- Everytown for Gun Safety, American Federation of Teachers, & National Education Association. (2020a). Keeping our schools safe: A plan for preventing mass shootings and ending all gun violence in American schools. Author. Retrieved from https://everytownresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/WEB-School-Safety-021120A.pdf
- Everytown for Gun Safety, American Federation of Teachers, & National Education Association. (2020b). The impact of school safety drills for active shootings. Author. Retrieved from https://everytownresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/FINAL-School-Safety-Drills-Fact-Sheet-021220B.pdf
- FEMA. (2013). IS-0362.a: Multi-hazard emergency planning for schools.
- FEMA. (2015). Active shooter: What can you do. Retrieved from https://training.fema.gov/is/courseoverview.aspx?code=IS-907
- Fox, J. A., & Friedel, E. E. (2018). The menace of school shootings in America: Panic and overresponse. In H. Shapiro (Ed.), The Wiley handbook on violence in education: Forms, factors, and preventions (pp. 15–36). Wiley/Blackwell Publishers.
- Gerstmann, E. (2019, September 7). Why schools should end active shooter drills immediately. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/evangerstmann/2019/09/07/why-schools-should-end-active-shooter-drills-immediately/#67b9e4bc2a92
- Hamblin, J. (2018, February 28). What are active-shooter drills doing to kids? The psychological effects of realistic simulations could be dangerous. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2018/02/effects-of-active-shooter/554150/
- Huskey, M. G., & Connell, N. M. (2020). Preparation or provocation? Student perceptions of active shooter drills. Criminal Justice Policy Review. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403419900316
- I Love You Guys Foundation. (2015). Operation guidance for schools, districts, departments and agencies: A general guide on incorporating standard response protocol within a school safety plan, Version 2.0. Author. Retrieved from https://iloveuguys.org/srp/SRP%20K12%20Operation%20Guidelines%202015.pdf
- I Love You Guys Foundation. (2020). A general guide on incorporating standard response protocol and standard reunification method within a school safety plan – Jeffco DeAngelis Foundation. Author.
- Interlandi, J. (2018, September 5). How do you walk back into a classroom again? Teaching in the age of mass shootings. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/09/05/magazine/school-shootings-teachers-support-armed.html
- Jonson, C. L. (2017). Preventing school shootings: The effectiveness of safety measures. Victims and Offenders, 12(6), 956–973. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2017.1307293
- Jonson, C. L., & Moon, M. (2019, May 9). Opinion: Base active shooter drills on science. The Cincinnati Enquirer. Retrieved from https://www.cincinnati.com/story/opinion/2019/05/09/active-shooter-drills-scientific-data-columbine-shooting/1120437001/
- Jonson, C. L., Moon, M. M., & Hendry, J. A. (2020). One size does not fit all: Traditional lockdown versus multioption response to school shootings. Journal of School Violence, 19(2), 154–166. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2018.1553719
- Kamenetz, A. (2020, February 11). 2 big teachers unions call for rethinking student involvement in lockdown drills. NPR. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/2020/02/11/804468827/2-big-teachers-unions-call-for-rethinking-student-involvement-in-lockdown-drills
- Lilly, J. R., Cullen, F. T., & Ball, R. A. (2019). Criminological theory: Context and consequences (7th ed.). Sage.
- Macdonald, H., & Perez, J., Jr. (2019). 50 state comparison: K-12 school safety. Education commision of the States. https://www.ecs.org/50-state-comparison-k-12-school-safety/
- Martinson, R. (1974). What works? Questions and answers about prison reform. The Public Interest, 35(Spring), 22–54. https://www.nationalaffairs.com/storage/app/uploads/public/58e/la4/ba7/58ela4ba7354b822028275.pdf
- Maxwell, L. A. (2014, August 19). U.S. school enrollment hits majority-minority milestone. Education Week. Retrieved from https://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/education-statistics/index.html
- Minshew, L. M. (2018). From the Editorial Board: On arming k-12 teachers. The High School Journal, 101(3), 129–133. https://doi.org/10.1353/hsj.2018.0006
- Musu, L., Zhang, A., Wang, K., Zhang, J., & Oudekerk, B. A. (2019). Indicator of school crime and safety: 2018. National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, and Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice.
- National Association of School Psychologists. (2018). Mitigating negative psychological effects of school lockdowns: Brief guidance for schools. Author.
- National Association of School Psychologists & National Association of School Resource Officers. (2017). Best practice considerations for schools in active shooter and other armed assailant drills. Author.
- National Association of School Psychologists & National Association of School Resource Officers. (2020). NASP and NASRO urge accuracy with regard to lockdown versus other types of armed assailant drills. Author.
- National Association of School Resource Officers. (2020, February 11). Active shooter drills important for preparedness. National Association of School Resource Officers. https://www.nasro.org/news/2020/02/11/news-releases/active-shooter-drills-important-for-preparedness/
- O’Regan, S. V. (2019, December 13). The company behind America’s scariest school shooter drills. The Trace. Retrieved from https://www.thetrace.org/2019/12/alice-active-shooter-training-school-safety/
- PBS NewsHour Extra. (2019, February 19). How teens want to solve America’s school shooting problem. PBS. Retrieved from https://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/student-voices/how-teens-want-to-solve-americas-school-shooting-problem/
- Perkins, J. C. (2018). Preparing teachers for school tragedy: Reading, writing, and lockdown. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice, 18(1), 70–81. http://m.www.na-businesspress.com/JHETP/JHETP18-1/PerkinsJC_18_1.pdf
- Peterson, J., & Densley, P. (2019a, February 8). School shooters usually show these signs of distress long before they open fire, our database shows. The Conversation. Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/school-shooters-usually-show-these-signs-of-distress-long-before-they-open-fire-our-database-shows-111242
- Peterson, J., & Densley, P. (2019b). The violence project database of mass shooters. The Violence Project. https://www.theviolenceproject.org
- Peterson, J., Sackrison, E., & Polland, A. (2015). Training students to respond to shootings on campus: Is it worth it? Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 2(2), 127–138. https://doi.org/10.1037/tam0000042
- Pinsker, J. (2019, May 9). When was the last time American children were so afraid? The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2019/05/lockdown-drill-fear/589090/
- Rajan, S., & Branas, C. C. (2018). Arming schoolteachers: What do we know? Where do we go from here? American Journal of Public Health, 108(7), 860–862. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304464
- Rasheed, A. (2015, February 26). The importance of muscle memory and drills in crisis prevention education. Strategic Business Partners. http://www.strategic-business-partners.net/importance-muscle-memory-drills-crisis-prevention-education/
- REMS TA Center. (2019). Integrating drills and exercises into overall school emergency management planning. Retrieved from https://rems.ed.gov/docs/ExercisesWebinar_Presentation_508C.pdf
- Riser-Kositsky, M. (2019, December 31). Education statistics: Facts about American schools. Education Week. Retrieved from https://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/education-statistics/index.html
- Ropeik, D. (2018, March 8). Schools shootings are extraordinary rare. Why is fear of them driving policy? The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/school-shootings-are-extraordinarily-rare-why-is-fear-of-them-driving-policy/2018/03/08/f4ead9f2-2247-11e8-94da-ebf9d112159c_story.html
- Rygg, L. (2015). School shooting simulations: At what point does preparation become more harmful than helpful? Children’s Legal Rights Journal, 35(3), 215–228. https://lawecommons.luc.edu/clrj/vol35/iss3/3
- Schildkraut, J., Formica, M. K., & Malatras, J. (2018). Can mass shootings be stopped? To address the problem, we must better understand the phenomenon (Policy brief). Rockefeller Institute of Government.
- Schildkraut, J., Nickerson, A. B., & Ristoff, T. (2020). Locks, lights, out of sight: Assessing students’ perceptions of emergency preparedness across multiple lockdown drills. Journal of School Violence, 19(1), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2019.1703720
- Silva, J. R., & Capellan, J. A. (2019). The media’s coverage of mass public shootings in America: Fifty years of newsworthiness. International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 43(1), 77–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2018.1437458
- Speilberger, C. D. (1973). Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory for children. Consulting Psychologists Press.
- Speilberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press.
- Trump, K. S. (2011). Proactive school security and emergency preparedness planning. Corwin. U.S. Department of Education, 2019.
- U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2008). Active shooter: How to respond. U.S. Government Printing Office.
- Witt, E. (2018, February 19). How the survivors of Parkland began the Never Again movement. The New Yorker. Retrieved from https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/how-the-survivors-of-parkland-began-the-never-again-movement
- Yang, A. (2020). End active shooter drills. Author. https://www.yang2020.com/policies/end-active-shooter-drills/
- Zhe, E. J., & Nickerson, A. B. (2007). Effects of an intruder drill on children’s knowledge, anxiety, and perceptions of school safety. School Psychology Review, 36(3), 501–508. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02796015.2007.12087936