87
Views
4
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

AFLATOXIN, ASPERGILLUS, MAIZE, AND THE RELEVANCE TO ALTERNATIVE FUELS (OR AFLATOXIN: WHAT IS IT, CAN WE GET RID OF IT, AND SHOULD THE ETHANOL INDUSTRY CARE?)

&
Pages 227-260 | Received 03 Jul 2008, Accepted 29 Aug 2008, Published online: 02 Dec 2008

References

  • H. K. Abbas, C. J. Mirocha, M. R. Rosiles, and M. Carvajal. (1988a). Decomposition of zearalenone and deoxynivalenol in the process of making tortillas from corn. Cereal Chem. 65:15–19.
  • H. K. Abbas, C. J. Mirocha, M. R. Rosiles, and M. Carvajal. (1988b). Effect of tortilla-preparation process on aflatoxins B1and B2 in corn. Mycotoxin Research 4:33–36.
  • H. K. Abbas. (2005). Aflatoxin and Food Safety. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group.
  • H. K. Abbas, C. Accinelli, R. M. Zablotowicz, C. A. Abel, H. A. Bruns, Y. Dong, and W. T. Shier. (2008a). Dynamics of mycotoxin and Aspergillus flavus levels in aging Bt and non-Bt corn residues under Mississippi no-till conditions. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 56:7578–7585.
  • H. K. Abbas, R. D. Cartwright, W. T. Shier, M. M. Abouzied, C. B. Bird, L. G. Rice, P. F. Ross, G. L. Sciumbato, and F. I. Meredith. (1998). Natural occurrence of fumonisins in rice with Fusarium sheath rot disease. Plant Disease. 82:22–25.
  • H. K. Abbas, C. J. Mirocha, R. J. Pawlosky, and D. J. Pusch. (1985). Effect of cleaning, milling, and baking on deoxynivalenol in wheat. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 50:482–486.
  • H. K. Abbas, and W. T. Shier. (2008). Approaches to reducing mycotoxin contamination in food products. The CORNUCOPIA, AGFD abstracts, 235th ACS National Meeting, April 6–10, New Orleans, LA. Abstract #AGFD 66.
  • H. K. Abbas, W. P. Williams, G. L. Windham, H. C. PringleIII, W. Xie, and W. T. Shier. (2002). Aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination of commercial corn (Zea mays) hybrids in Mississippi. J. Agric. Food Chem. 50:5246–5254.
  • H. K. Abbas, and R. M. Zablotowicz. (2008). Non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus isolates. U.S. Patent 7,361,499 B1, issued April 22, 2008
  • H. K. Abbas, R. M. Zablotowicz, H. A. Bruns, and C. A. Abel. (2006). Biocontrol of aflatoxin in corn by inoculation with non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus isolates. Biocontrol Science and Technology 16:437–449.
  • H. K. Abbas, R. M. Zablotowicz, H. A. Bruns, and C. A. Abel. (in press). Development of non-toxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus for control of aflatoxin in maize. In: E. N. Burton, and P. V. Williams. Crop Protection, Research Advances. Nova Science Publishers..
  • H. K. Abbas, R. M. Zablotowicz, and M. A. Locke. (2004). Spatial variability of Aspergillus flavus soil populations under different crops and corn grain infestation and mycotoxins. Canadian Journal of Botany 82:1768–1775.
  • H. K. Abbas, R. M. Zablotowicz, M. Weaver, B. W. Horn, and W. T. Shier. (2005). Relationships between aflatoxin production, sclerotia formation and source among Mississippi Delta Aspergillus isolates. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 112:283–287.
  • H. K. Abbas, R. M. Zablotowicz, and H. A. Bruns. (2008b). Modeling the colonization of maize by toxigenic and non-toxigenic Aspergillus flavus strains: implications for biological control. World Mycotoxin Journal 1(3):333–340.
  • H. K. Abbas, R. M. Zablotowicz, H. A. Bruns, and C. A. Abel. (2008c). Development of non-toxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus for control of aflatoxin in maize. In: Crop Protection Research Advances. Editors: E. N. Burton and P. V. Williams, 2008: 181–192. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
  • C. Accinelli, H. K. Abbas, R. M. Zablotowicz, and J. R. Wilkinson. (2008). Aspergillus flavus aflatoxin occurrence and expression of aflatoxin biosynthesis genes in soil. Can. J. Microbiol. 54:1–9.
  • F. Aguilar, S. P. Hussain, and P. Cerutti. (1993). Aflatoxin B, induces the transversion of G to T in codon 249 of the p53 tumor suppressor gene in human hepatocytes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 90:8586–8590.
  • R. Allcroft, R. B. A. Carnaghan, K. Sargeant, and J. O'Kelly. (1961). A toxic factor in Brazilian groundnut meal. Vet. Rec. 73:428–429.
  • B. N. Ames, M. Profet, and L. S. Gold. (1990). Nature's chemicals and synthetic Chemicals: Comparative toxicology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 87:7782–7786.
  • T. Aoyama, S. Yamano, P. S. Guzelian, H. V. Gelboin, and F. J. Gonzalez. (1990). Five of 12 forms of vaccinia virus-expressed human hepatic cytochrome P450 metabolically activate aflatoxin B1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 87:4790–4793.
  • T. Asao, G. Buchi, M. M. Abdul Kader, G. B. Chang, E. L. Wich, and G. N. Wogan. (1963). The structures of aflatoxin B1 and G1. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 87:882–886.
  • K. O. Ayeh. (2008). Expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs): emerging molecular marker tools for improving agronomic traits in plant biotechnology. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 7:331–341.
  • S. W. Baertschi, K. D. Raney, M. P. Stone, and T. M. Harris. (1988). Preparation of the 8,9-epoxide of the mycotoxin aflatoxin B1: the ultimate carcinogenic species. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 110:7929–7931.
  • R. E. Baird, R. N. Trigiano, G. L. Windham, W. P. Williams, R. Kelly, H. K. Abbas, J. K. Moulton, and M. L. Scruggs. (2006). Comparison of aflatoxigenic and nonaflatoxigenic isolates of Aspergillus flavus using DNA amplification fingerprinting techniques. Mycopathologia 161:93–99.
  • R. W. Ball, and R. A. CoulombeJr.. (1991). Comparative biotransformation of aflatoxin B1 in mammalian airway epithelium. Carcinogenesis 12:305–310.
  • R. W. Ball, J. M. Huie, and R. A. CoulumbeJr.. (1995). Comparative activation of aflatoxin B1 by mammalian pulmonary tissues. Toxicol. Lett. 75:119–125.
  • S. E. Barnes, T. P. Dola, J. W. Bennett, and D. Bhatnagar. (1994). Synthesis of sterigmatocystin on a chemically defined medium by species of Aspergillus and Chaetomium. Mycopathologia 125:173–178.
  • P. Bayman, and P. J. Cotty. (1991). Vegatative compatibility and genetic variation in the Aspergillus flavus population of a single field. Can. J. Bot. 69:1707–1711.
  • P. Bayman, and P. J. Cotty. (1993). Genetic diversity in Aspergillus flavus: association with aflatoxin production and morphology. Can. J. Bot. 71:23–34.
  • J. W. Bennett, and M. Klich. (2003). Mycotoxins. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 16:497–516.
  • D. Bhatnagar, J. W. Cary, K. Ehrlich, J. Yu, and T. E. Cleveland. (2006). Understanding the genetics of regulation of aflatoxin production and Aspergillus flavus development. Mycopathologia 162:155–166.
  • D. Bhatnagar, K. C. Ehrlich, and T. E. Cleveland. (1992). Oxidation-reduction reactions in biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. In: D. Bhatnagar, E. B. Lillehoj, and D. K. Arora. Handbook of Applied Mycology. Vol. 5. New York: Marcel Dekker. 255–286.
  • D. Bhatnagar, K. C. Ehrlich, and T. E. Cleveland. (2003). Molecular genetic analysis and regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 61:83–93.
  • D. Bhatnagar, S. McCormick, L. S. Lee, and R. A. Hill. (1987). Identification of O-methylsterigmatocystin as an aflatoxin B1 and G1 precursor in Aspergillus parasiticus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 53:1028–1033.
  • D. Bhatnagar, G. A. Payne, T. E. Cleveland, and J. F. Robens. (2004). Mycotoxins: current issues in USA. In: H. Barug, H. P. van Egmond, R. Lopez-Garcia, W. A. van Osenbruggen, and A. Visconti. Meeting the Mycotoxin Menace.. Wageningen, The Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers. 17–47.
  • D. Bhatnagar, R. Proctor, G. A. Payne, J. Wilkinson, J. Yu, T. E. Cleveland, and W. C. Nierman. (2006). Genomics of mycotoxigenic fungi. In: D. Barug, D. Bhatnagar, H. P. van Egmond, J. W. van der Kamp, W. A. van Osenbruggen, and A. Visconti. The Mycotoxin Factbook (Food & Feed Topics). Wageningen, The Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers. 157–178.
  • D. Bhatnagar, K. Rajasekaran, G. A. Payne, R. L. Brown, J. Yu, and T. E. Cleveland. (2008). The “omics” tools: genomics, proteomics, metabolomics for solving the aflatoxin contamination problem. World Mycotoxin Journal 1:3–12.
  • D. Bhatnagar, J. Yu, and K. C. Ehrlich. (2002). Toxins of filamentous fungi. Chem. Immunol. 81:167–206.
  • E. M. Binder, L. M. Tan, L. J. Chin, J. Handl, and J. Richard. (2007). Worldwide occurrence of mycotoxins in commodities, feeds and feed ingredients. Animal Feed Sci. Technol. 137:265–282.
  • R. J. Bohast, G. W. Nofsinger, A. A. Lagoda, and L. T. Black. (1982). Integrated process for ammonia inactivation of aflatoxin-contaminated corn and ethanol fermentation. Appl Environ Microbiol. 43 (4):961–963.
  • B. Bolla, A. Brown, W. Holmes, A. Anakala, W. P. Williams, and J. R. Wilkinson. (2007). Evaluation of aflatoxin degradation by Aspergillus flavus. Proceedings of the 2007 Annual Multi-crop Aflatoxin/Fumonisin Elimination & Fungal Genomics Workshops, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Atlanta, GA, October 22–2435.
  • R. Bortell, R. L. Asquith, G. T. Edds, C. F. Simpson, and W. W. Aller. (1983). Acute experimentally induced aflatoxicosis in the weanling pony. Am. J. Vet. Res. 44:2110–2114.
  • R. J. Bothast, and M. A. Schlicher. (2005). Biotechnological processes for conversion of corn into ethanol. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 67:19–25.
  • J. K. BourneJr.. (2007). Green Dreams: making fuel from crops could be good for the planet–after a breakthrough or two. National Geographic Magazine 212:38–59.
  • C. H. Bourgeois, R. C. Shank, R. A. Grossman, D. O. Johnson, W. L. Wooding, and P. Chandavimol. (1971). Acute aflatoxin B1 toxicity in the macaque and its similarity to Reye's syndrome. Lab. Invest. 24:206.
  • B. Bressac, M. Kew, J. Wands, and M. Ozturk. (1991). Selective G to T mutations of p53 gene in hepatocellular carcinoma from southern Africa. Nature 350:429–431.
  • M. Brodhagen, and N. P. Keller. (2006). Signaling pathways connecting mycotoxin production and sporulation. Mol. Plant Pathol. 7:285–301.
  • T. E. Brooks, W. P. Williams, G. L. Windham, M. C. Wilcox, and H. K. Abbas. (2005). Quantitative trait loci contributing resistance to aflatoxin accumulation in the maize inbred Mp313E. Crop Sci. 45:171–174.
  • L. R. Brown. (2007). Distillery demand for grain to fuel cars vastly understated, world may be facing highest grain prices in history. Earth Policy Institute Update 63. http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2007/Update63.htm.
  • R. L. Brown, Z.-Y. Chen, T. E. Cleveland, and J. S. Russin. (1999). Advances in the development of host resistance in corn to aflatoxin contamination by Aspergillus flavus. Phytopathology 89:113–117.
  • J. D. Bu'Lock. (1961). Intermediary metabolism and antibiotic synthesis. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 3:293–342.
  • G. B. Burow, T. C. Nesbitt, J. Dunlap, and N. P. Keller. (1997). Seed lipoxygenase products modulate Aspergillus mycotoxin biosynthesis. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 10:380–387.
  • G. Caetano-Anollés, R. N. Trigiano, and M. T. Windham. (1996). Sequence signatures from DNA amplification fingerprinting reveal fine population structure of the dogwood pathogen Discula destructiva. FEMS Microb. Lett. 145:377–383.
  • A. M. Calvo, J. Bok, W. Brooks, and N. P. Keller. (2004). veA is required for toxin and sclerotial production in Aspergillus parasiticus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:4733–4739.
  • A. M. Calvo, R. A. Wilson, J. W. Bok, and N. P. Keller. (2002). Relationship between secondary metabolism and fungal development. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 66:447–459.
  • M. Carvajal, M. R. Rosiles, H. K. Abbas, and C. J. Mirocha. (1987). Mycotoxin carryover from grain to tortillas in Mexico. In: M. S. Zuber, E. B. Lillehoj, and B. L. Renfro. “Aflatoxin in Maize,” A Proceedings of the Workshop. Mexico, April7–11, (1986), 318–319.
  • J. W. Cary, and A. M. Calvo. (In press). Regulation of Aspergillus mycotoxin biosynthesis. In: H. K. Abbas. J. Toxicol. Toxin Rev. Taylor & Francis Group.
  • J. W. Cary, G. R. O'Brian, D. M. Nielsen, W. Nierman, P. Harris-Coward, J. Yu, D. Bhatnagar, T. E. Cleveland, G. A. Payne, and A. M. Calvo. (2007). Elucidation of veA-dependent genes associated with aflatoxin and sclerotial production in Aspergillus flavus by functional genomics. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 76:1107–1118.
  • J. W. Cary, and K. Ehrlich. (2006). Aflatoxigenicity in Aspergillus: molecular genetics, phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary implications. Mycopathologia 162:167–177.
  • P.-K. Chang. (2003). The Aspergillus parasiticus protein AFLJ interacts with the aflatoxin pathway-specific regulator AFLR. Mol. Genet. Genomics. 268:711–719.
  • P.-K. Chang, J. W. Cary, D. Bhatnagar, T. E. Cleveland, J. W. Bennett, J. E. Linz, C. P. Woloshuk, and G. A. Payne. (1993). Cloning of the Aspergillus parasiticus apa-2 gene associated with the regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:3273–3279.
  • P.-K. Chang, J. W. Cary, J. Yu, D. Bhatnagar, and T. E. Cleveland. (1995). Aspergillus parasiticus polyketide synthase gene, pksA, a homolog of Aspergillus nidulans wA, is required for aflatoxin B1. Mol. Gen. Genet. 248:270–277.
  • P.-K. Chang, J. Yu, D. Bhatnagar, and T. E. Cleveland. (1999). Repressor-AFLR interaction modulates aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus parasiticus. Mycopathologia 147:105–112.
  • P.-K. Chang, J. R. Wilkinson, B. W. Horn, J. Yu, D. Bhatnagar, and T. E. Cleveland. (2007). Genes differentially expressed by Aspergillus flavus strains after loss of aflatoxin production by serial transfers. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 77:917–925.
  • K. K. Cheung, and G. A. Sim. (1964). Aflatoxin G1. Nature 201:1184–1188.
  • A. Ciegler, R. E. Peterson, A. A. Lagoda, and H. H. Hall. (1966). Aflatoxin production and degradation by Aspergillus flavus in 20-liter fermentors. Appl. Microbiol. 14:826–833.
  • R. J. Cole, and R. H. Cox. (1981). Handbook of Toxic Fungal Metabolites. New York: Academic Press.
  • P. J. Cotty. (1989). Virulence and cultural characteristics of two Aspergillus flavus strains pathogenic on cotton. Phytopathology 79:808–814.
  • P. J. Cotty. (1990). Effect of atoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus on aflatoxin contamination of developing cottonseed. Plant Dis. 74:233–235.
  • P. J. Cotty, D. S. Bayman, D. S. Egel, and K. S. Elias. (1994). Agriculture, aflatoxins and Aspergillus. In: K. Powell. The Genus Aspergillus. New York: Plenum Press. 1–27.
  • P. J. Cotty, and P. Bayman. (1993). Competitive exclusion of a toxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus by an atoxigenic strain. Phytopathology 83:1283–1287.
  • G. Criseo, A. Bagnara, and G. Bisignano. (2001). Differentiation of aflatoxin-producing and non-producing strains of Aspergillus flavus group. Lett. Appl. Micro. 33:291–295.
  • G. L. Davis, and W. L. Williams. (1999). QTL for aflatoxin reduction in maize. Maize Genet. Conf. 41:22.
  • A. L. Demain. (1986). Regulation of secondary metabolism in fungi. Pure Appl. Chem. 58:219–226.
  • A. L. Demain, and A. Fang. (2000). The natural functions of secondary metabolites. Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol. 69:1–39.
  • R. W. Detroy, and C. W. Hasseltine. (1970). Secondary biosynthesis of aflatoxin B1 in Aspergillus parasiticus. Can J. Microbiol. 16:959–963.
  • U. L. Diener. (1989). Preharvest aflatoxin contamination of peanuts, corn and cottonseed. Biodeterioration Res. 2:217–224.
  • H. G. Dohlman, and J. Thorner. (1997). RGS proteins and signaling by heterotrimeric G proteins. J. Biol. Chem. 272:3871–3874.
  • G. L. Dorn. (1970). Genetic and morphological properties of undifferentiated and invasive variants of Aspergillus nidulans. Genetics 66:267–279.
  • J. W. Dorner, and R. J. Cole. (2002). Effect of application of nontoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus in subsequent aflatoxin contamination of peanuts in storage. J. Stored Prod. Res. 38:329–339.
  • J. W. Dorner. (2005). Biological control of aflatoxin contamination of crops. In: H. K. Abbas. Aflatoxin and Food Safety. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group. 585: 333–352.
  • J. W. Dorner, and M. C. Lamb. (2006). Development and commercial use of Afla-Guard®, an aflatoxin biocontrol agent. Mycotoxin Res. 22:33–38.
  • M. P. Doyle, and E. H. Marth. (1978a). Aflatoxin is degraded by fragmented and intact mycelia of Aspergillus parasiticus grown 5 to 18 days with and without agitation. J. Food Prot. 41:549–555.
  • M. P. Doyle, and E. H. Marth. (1978b). Aflatoxin is degraded by myceliua from toxigenic and nontoxigenic strains of Aspergilli grown on different substrates. Mycopathologia 63:145–153.
  • M. P. Doyle, and E. H. Marth. (1978c). Aflatoxin is degraded by heated and unheated mycelia, filtrates of homogenized mycelia and filtrates of broth cultures of Aspergillus parasiticus. Mycopathologia 64:59–62.
  • M. F. Dutton. (1988). Enzymes and aflatoxin biosynthesis. Microbiol. Rev. 52:274–295.
  • D. L. Eaton, and J. D. Groopman. (1994). The Toxicology of Aflatoxins: Human Health, Veterinary, and Agricultural Significance.. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
  • D. S. Egel, P. J. Cotty, and K. S. Elias. (1994). Relationships among isolates of Aspergillus section Flavi that vary in aflatoxin production. Phytopathology 84:906–912.
  • K. C. Ehrlich, B. G. Montalbano, D. Bhatnagar, and T. E. Cleveland. (1998). Alteration of different domains in AFLR affects aflatoxin pathway metabolism in Aspergillus parasiticus transformants. Fungal Genet. Biol. 23:279–287.
  • J. E. Flaherty, and G. A. Payne. (1997). Overexpression of afIR leads to upregulation of pathway gene expression and increased aflatoxin production in Aspergillus flavus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63:3995–4000.
  • V. Ganesan, K. A. Rosentrater, and K. Muthukumarappan. (2006). Methodology to determine soluble content in dry grind ethanol coproduct streams. Appl. Eng. Agric. 22:899–903.
  • R. Geisen. (1996). Multiplex polymerase chain reaction for the detection of potential aflatoxin and sterigmatocystin producing fungi. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 19:388–392.
  • D. M. Geiser, J. I. Pitt, and J. W. Taylor. (1998a). Cryptic speciation and recombination in the aflatoxin-producing fungus Aspergillus flavus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 95:388–393.
  • J. J. Giambrone, D. L. Ewert, R. D. Wyatt, and C. S. Eidson. (1978). Effect of aflatoxin on the humoral and cell-mediated immune systems of the chicken. Am. J. Vet. Res. 39:305–308.
  • Y. Gong, A. Hounsa, S. Egal, P. C. Turner, A. E. Sutcliffe, A. J. Hall, K. Cardwell, and C. P. Wild. (2004). Postweaning exposure to aflatoxin results in impaired child growth: a longitudinal study in Benin, West Africa. Environmental Health Perspectives. 112:1334–1338.
  • M. S. Greenblatt, W. P. Bennet, M. Hollstein, and C. C. Harris. (1994). Mutations in the p53 tumor suppressor gene: clues to cancer etiology and molecular pathogenesis. Cancer Res. 55:4855–4878.
  • P. K. Gupta, R. K. Varshney, P. C. Sharma, and B. Ramesh. (1999). Molecular markers and their application in wheat breeding. Plant Breeding 118:369–390.
  • T. Hargrove. (2008). World fertilizer prices soar as food and fuel economies merge. IFDC Report. 33, http://www.ifdc.org/.
  • J. G. Heathcote, M. F. Dutton, and J. R. Hibbert. (1976). Biosynthesis of aflatoxins Part II Chem. Ind. (Lond.), 20: 270–272.
  • T. Henry, P. C. Iwen, and S. H. Hinrichs. (2000). Identification of Aspergillus species using internal transcribed spacer regions 1 and 2. J. Clin. Microbiol. 38:1510–1515.
  • J. Hicks, J.-H. Yu, N. Keller, and T. H. Adams. (1997). Aspergillus sporulation and mycotoxin production both require inactivation of the FadA G-alpha protein-dependent signaling pathway. EMBO J. 16:4916–4923.
  • W. E. Holmes, B. K. Bolla, A. E. Brown, A. Ankala, W. P. Williams, and J. R. Wilkinson. (2008). Economic ethanol: using aflatoxin contaminated feedstocks. 59th Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy in New Orleans. LA, March 1–7.
  • B. W. Horn, and R. L. Greene. (1995). Vegetative compatibility within populations of Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus and A. tamarii from a peanut field. Mycologia 87:324–332.
  • B. W. Horn, R. L. Greene, V. S. Sobolov, J. W. Dorner, J. H. Powell, and R. C. Layton. (1996). Association of morphology and mycotoxin production with vegetative compatibility groups in Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus and A. tamarii. Mycologia 88:574–587.
  • B.W. Horn, and J. W. Dorner. (1998). Soil populations of Aspergillus species from section Flavi along a transect through peanut-growing regions of the United States. Mycologia 90:767–776.
  • D. P. H. Hsieh, M. L. Lin, and R. C. Yao. (1973). Conversion of sterigmatocystin to aflatoxin B1 by Aspergillus parasiticus. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 52:992–997.
  • D. P. H. Hsieh, R. C. Yao, D. L. Fitzell, and C. A. Reece. (1976a). Origin of the bifuran ring structure in aflatoxin biosynthesis. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 98:1020–1021.
  • D. P. H. Hsieh, R. C. Yao, D. L. Fitzell, and R. Singh. (1976b). Biosynthesis of aflatoxins: conversions of norsolorinic acid and other hypothetical intermediates into aflatoxin B1 by Aspergillus parasiticus. J. Agric. Food Chem. 24:1167–1170.
  • D. P. Hsieh, C. C. Wan, and J. A. Billington. (1989). A versiconal hemiacetal acetate converting enzyme in aflatoxin biosynthesis. Mycopathologia 107:121–126.
  • I. C. Hsu, R. A. Metcalf, T. Sun, J. A. Welsh, N. J. Wang, and C. C. Harris. (1991). Mutational hotspot in the p53 gene in human hepatocellular carcinomas. Nature 350:427–428.
  • R. Iyer, and T.M. Harris. (1993). Preparation of aflatoxin B1 8,9-epoxide using m-chloroperbenzoic acid. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 6:313–316.
  • R. Iyer, B. Coles, K. D. Raney, R. Thier, F. P. Guengerich, and T. M. Harris. (1994). DNA adduction by the potent carcinogen aflatoxin B1: mechanistic studies. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 116:1603–1609.
  • R. Jamie-Garcia, and P. J. Cotty. (2004). Aspergillus flavus in soils and corn cobs in South Texas: implications for management of aflatoxins in corn-cotton rotations. Plant Dis. 88:1366–1371.
  • S. K. Kadian, D. P. Monga, and M. C. Goel. (1988). Effect of aflatoxin B1 on the delayed type hypersensitivity and phagocytic activity of reticuloendothelial system in chickens. Mycopathologia 104:33–36.
  • N. Kato, W. Brooks, and A. M. Calvo. (2003). The expression of sterigmatocystin and penicillin genes in Aspergillus nidulans is controlled by veA, a gene required for sexual development. Eukaryot. Cell 2:1178–1186.
  • N. P. Keller, G. Turner, and J. W. Bennett. (2005). Fungal secondary metabolism—from biochemistry to genomics. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 3:1–11.
  • R. Y. Kelley, W. P. Williams, J. E. Mylroie, D. L. Boykin, L. K. Hawkins, G. L. Windham, T. D. Brooks, S. M. Bridges, B. E. Scheffler, and J. R. Wilkinson. (2009). Genomic profile of maize response to Aspergillus flavus infection. Toxin Reviews 28 (2 or 3):
  • P. Kenkel, and K. Anderson. (1999). Grain handlers guide to aflatoxin. Extension Facts WF-233, Oklahoma State University.
  • Y. Kim, R. Hendrickson, N.S. Mosier, M.R. Ladisch, B. Bals, V. Balan, and B. E. Dale. (2008). Enzyme hydrolysis and ethanol fermentation of liquid hot water and AFEX pretreated distillers’ grains at high-solids loadings. Bioresour. Technol. 99:5206–5215.
  • M. A. Klich. (2007). Aspergillus flavus: the major producer of aflatoxin. Mol. Plant Pathol. 8:713–722.
  • M. A. Klich, and J. I. Pitt. (1988). Differentiation of Aspergillus flavus from Aspergillus parasiticus and other closely related species. Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 91:99–108.
  • M. D. Lancaster, F. P. Jenkins, and J. M. Phillip. (1961). Toxicity associated with certain samples of groundnuts. Nature 192:1095–1096.
  • J. Lane. (2008). Meat vs fuel: grain use in the U.S. and China, 1995–2008. Biofuels Digest. http://www.biofuelsdigest.com/MeatvsFuel.pdf
  • L. L. Leaich, and K. E. Papa. (1974). Aflatoxins in mutants of Aspergillus flavus. Mycopathologia 52:223–229.
  • L. S. Lee, J. W. Bennett, A. F. Cuculu, and R. L. Ory. (1976). Biosynthesis of aflatoxin B1-conversion of versicolorin A to aflatoxin B1 by Aspergillus parasiticus. J. Agric. Food Chem. 24:1167–1170.
  • M. S. Legator, S. M. Zuffante, and A. R. Harp. (1965). Aflatoxin: effect on cultured heteroploid human embryonic lung cells. Nature 208:345–347.
  • A. Luzi, M. F. Cometa, and M. Palmery. (2002). Acute effects of aflatoxins on guinea pig isolated ileum. Toxicology in vitro. 16:525–529.
  • M.S. Lye, A. A. Ghazali, J. Mohan, N. Alwin, and R. C. Mair. (1995). An outbreak of acute hepatic encephalopathy due to severe aflatoxicosis in Malaysia. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 53:68–72.
  • M. Mably, M. Mankotia, P. Cavlovic, J. Tam, L. Wong, P. Pantazopoulos, P. Calway, and P. M. Scott. (2005). Survey of aflatoxins in beer sold in Canada. Food Addit. Contam. 22:1252–1257.
  • Z. V. Magbanua. (2004). The use of GFP tagged Aspergillus flavus to monitor fungal growth in developing ears of resistant and susceptible corn hybrids. Ph.D. dissertation, Mississippi State University, MS, 26–71.
  • N. Mahoney, and R. J. Molyneux. (2004). Phytochemical inhibition of aflatoxigenicity in Aspergillus flavus by constituents of walnut (Juglans regia). J. Agric. Food Chem. 52:1882–1889.
  • N. Mahoney, and R. J. Molyneux. (1998). Contamination of tree nuts by aflatoxigenic fungi: aflatoxin content of closed-shell pistachios. J. Agric. Food Chem. 46:1906–1909.
  • S. D. Martinelli, and A. J. Clutterbuck. (1971). A quantitative survey of conidiation mutants in Aspergillus nidulans. J. Gen. Microbiol. 69:261–268.
  • T. E. Massey, R. K. Stewart, J. M. Daniels, and L. Liu. (1995). Biochemical and molecular aspects of mammalian susceptibility to aflatoxin B1 carcinogenicity. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 208:213–227.
  • C. G. Mathews. (2006). Aflatoxin Alert. Fort Worth Grain Exchange, Aflatoxin #7. Aug. 28.
  • A. McAloon, F. Taylor, W. Yee, K. Ibsen, and R. Wooley. (2000). Determining the Cost of Producing Ethanol from Corn Starch and Lignocellulosic Feedstocks. NREL/TP-580–28893.
  • C. E. McAlpin, D. T. Wicklow, and C. E. Platis. (1998). Genotypic diversity of Aspergillus parasiticus in an Illinois cornfield. Plant Dis. 82:1132–1136.
  • C. E. McAlpin, and B. Mannarelli. (1995). Construction and characterization of a DNA probe for distinguishing strains of Aspergillus flavus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:1068–1072.
  • C. E. McAlpin, D. T. Wicklow, and B. W. Horn. (2002). DNA fingerprinting analysis of vegetative compatibility groups in Aspergillus flavus from a peanut field in Georgia. Plant Dis. 86:254–258.
  • J. E. Mellon, P. J. Cotty, and M. K. Dowd. (2007). Aspergillus flavus hydrolases: their roles in pathogenesis and substrate utilization. Appl. Microbiol Biotechnol. 77:497–504.
  • C. J. Mercado, M. P. N. Real, and R. R. Del Rosario. (1991). Chemical detoxification of aflatoxin-containing copra. Journal of Food Science 56:733–735.
  • D. M. Meyers, G. O'Brian, W. L. Du, D. Bhatnagar, and G. A. Payne. (1998). Characterization of aflJ, a gene required for conversion of pathway intermediates to aflatoxin. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:3713–3717.
  • R. E. Minto, and C. A. Townsend. (1997). Enzymology and molecular biology of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Chem. Rev. 97:2537–2556.
  • C. J. Mirocha, C. G. Mackintosh, U. A. Mirza, W. Xie, Y. Xu, and J. Chen. (1992). Occurrence of fumonisin in forage grass in New Zealand. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58:3196–3198.
  • S. F. Moody, and B. M. Tyler. (1990a). Restriction enzyme analysis of mitochondrial DNA of the Aspergillus flavus group: A. flavus, A. parasiticus and A. nomius. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:2441–2452.
  • S. F. Moody, and B. M. Tyler. (1990b). Use of nuclear DNA restriction fragment length polymorphism to analyze the diversity of the Aspergillus flavus group: A. flavus, A. parasiticus and A. nomius. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:2453–2461.
  • S. Mor, A. K. Puniya, and K. Singh. (2003). Degradation of preformed aflatoxins by detoxifying organisms. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences. 73:315–318.
  • O. J. Moreno, and M. S. Kang. (1999). Aflatoxins in maize: The problem and genetic solutions. Plant Breed. 118:1–16.
  • G. S. Murthy, D. E. Townsend, G. L. Meerdink, G. L. Bargren, M. E. Tumbleson, and V. Singh. (2005). Effect of aflatoxin B1 on dry-grind ethanol process. Cereal Chem. 82:302–304.
  • P. M. Newberne, R. Russo, and G. N. Wogan. (1966). Acute toxicity of aflatoxin B1 in the dog. Pathol Vet. 3:331–340.
  • T. E. Nicholas. (1983). Economic effects of aflatoxin in corn. In: U L Dienes, R. L. Asquith, and J. W. Dickens. Aflatoxin and Aspergillus flavus in corn. Southern Cooperative Series Bulletin. Auburn, AL: Auburn University. 279: 67–71.
  • G. R. O'Brian, D. R. Georgianna, J. R. Wilkinson, J. Yu, H. K. Abbas, D. Bhatnagar, T. E. Cleveland, W. Nierman, and G. A. Payne. (2007). The effect of elevated temperature on gene transcription and aflatoxin biosynthesis. Mycologia 99:232–239.
  • T. V. Orum, D. M. Bigelow, M. R. Nelson, D. R. Howell, and P. J. Cotty. (1997). Spatial and temporal patterns of Aspergillus flavus strain composition and propagule density in Yuma County, Arizona soils. Plant Dis. 81:911–916.
  • K. E. Papa. (1986). Heterokaryon incompatibility in Aspergillus flavus. Mycologia 78:98–101.
  • D. L. Park, and B. Liang. (1993). Perspectives on aflatoxin control for human food and animal feed. Trends in Food Science & Technology 4:334–342.
  • G. A. Payne, and M. P. Brown. (1998). Genetics and physiology of aflatoxin biosynthesis. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol. 36:329–362.
  • G. A. Payne, G. J. Nystrom, D Bhatnagar, T. E. Cleveland, and C. P. Woloshuk. (1993). Cloning of the afl-2 gene involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis from Aspergillus flavus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:156–162.
  • G.A. Payne. (1992). Aflatoxins in maize. CRC Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 10:423–440.
  • D. G. Peterson, J. P. Tomkins, D. A. Frisch, R. A. Wing, and A. H. Paterson. (2000). Construction of plant bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) libraries: an illustrated guide. J. Agric. Genomics 5.:
  • T. D. Phillips, E. Afriye-Gyawu, J. Williams, H. Huebner, N. A. Ankrah, D. Ofori-Adjei, P. Jolly, N. Johnson, J. Taylor, A. Marroquin-Cardona, L. Xu, L. Tang, and J. S. Wang. (2008). Reducing human exposure to aflatoxin through the use of clay: A review. Food Additives and Contaminants 25:134–145.
  • D. Pimentel. (2003). Ethanol fuels: energy balance, economics, and environmental impacts are negative. Natural Resources Research 12:127–134.
  • M. S. Price, J. Yu, W. C. Nierman, H. S. Kim, B. Pritchard, C. A. Jacobus, D. Bhatnagar, T. E. Cleveland, and G. A. Payne. (2006). The aflatoxin pathway regulator AflR induces gene transcription inside and outside the aflatoxin biosynthetic cluster. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 255:275–279.
  • Renewable Fuels Association. (2007). Ethanol Industry Outlook. Building New Horizons. Annual Industry Outlook Report. Page 2. http://www.ethanolrfa.org/objects/pdf/outlook/RFA_Outlook_2007.pdf this information is based upon a report: page 4 of CONTRIBUTION OF THE ETHANOL INDUSTRY TO THE ECONOMY OF THE UNITED STATES Prepared for the Renewable Fuels Association by John M. Urbanchuk, Director, LECG LLC, February 20, 2008, http://www.ethanolrfa.org/objects/documents/1537/2007_ethanol_economic_contribution.pdf.
  • J.P. Rheeder, W. F. O. Marasas, and H. F. Vismer. (2002). Production of fumonisin analogs by Fusarium species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:2101–2105.
  • J. L. Richard, and J. R. Thurston. (1975). Effect of aflatoxin on phagocytosis of Aspergillus fumigatus spores by rabbit alveolar macrophages. Appl. Microbiol. 30:44–47.
  • J. L. Richard, J. R. Thurston, and C. K. Graham. (1974). Changes in complement activity, serum proteins and prothrombin time in guinea pigs fed rubratoxin alone or in combination with aflatoxin. Amer. J. Vet. Res. 35:957–960.
  • J. Robens. (2001). The costs of mycotoxin management to the USA: Management of aflatoxins in the United States. American Phytopathology Society Online (APSnet), http://www.apsnet.org/online/feature/mycotoxin/.
  • J. Robens, and K. F. Cardwell. (2005). The costs of mycotoxin management in the United States. In: H. K. Abbas. Aflatoxin and Food Safety. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis. 1–12.
  • F. C. Saunders, E. A. Barker, and E. A. Smuckler. (1972). Selective inhibition of nucleoplasmic rat liver DNA-dependent RNA polymerase by aflatoxin B1. Cancer Res. 32:2487–2494.
  • B. Scherm, M. Palomba, D. Serra, A. Marcello, and Q. Migheli. (2005). Detection of transcripts of the aflatoxin genes aflD, aflO, and aflP by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction allows differentiation of aflatoxin-producing and non-producing isolates of Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 98:201–210.
  • G. E. Scott, and N. Zummo. (1988). Sources of resistance in maize to kernel infection by Aspergillus flavus in the field. Crop Sci. 28:504–507.
  • G.E. Scott, and N. Zummo. (1990). Registration of Mp313E parental line of maize. Crop Sci. 30:1378.
  • G. E. Scott, and N. Zummo. (1992). Registration of Mp420 germplasm line of maize. Crop Sci. 32:1296.
  • T. Shantha. (1999). Fungal degradation of aflatoxin B1. Nat. Toxins 7:175–178.
  • T. Shantha, M. Sreenivasa, E. R. Rati, and V. Prema. (1986). Detoxification of groundnut seeds by urea and sunlight. Journal of Food Safety 7:225–231.
  • R. P. Sharma. (1985). Immunotoxicology of food constituents. Food Technol. 39:94–105.
  • R. P. Sharma. (1991). Immunotoxic effects of mycotoxins. In: R. P. Sharma, and D. K. Salunkhe. Mycotoxins and Phytoalexins. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 81–99.
  • C.-N. Shih, and E. H. Marth. (1975). Aflatoxin can be degraded by the mycelium of Aspergillus parasiticus. Zeitschrift für Lebensmitteluntersuchung und -Forschung A. 158:361–362.
  • T. Shimada, and F. P. Guengerich. (1989). Evidence for cytochrome P-450NF, the nifedipine oxidase, being the principal enzyme involved in the bioactivation of aflatoxins in human liver. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 86:462–465.
  • M. G. Smart, D. T. Wicklow, and R. W. Caldwell. (1990). Pathogenesis in Aspergillus ear rot of maize: Light microscopy of fungal spread from wounds. Phytopathol. 80:1287–1294.
  • R. D. Smiley, and F. A. Draughon. (2000). Preliminary evidence that degradation of aflatoxin B1 by Flavobacterium aurantiacum is enzymatic. J. Food Prot. 63:415–418.
  • C. A. Smith, C. P. Woloshuk, D. Robertson, and G. A. Payne. (2007). Silencing of the aflatoxin gene cluster in a diploid strain of Aspergillus flavus is suppressed by ectopic aflR expression. Genetics 176:2077–2086.
  • K. A. Stenske, J. R. Smith, S. J. Newman, L. B. Newman, and C. A. Kirk. (2006). Aflatoxicosis in dogs and dealing with suspected contaminated commercial foods. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 228:1686–1691.
  • M. J. Stone, and D. H. Williams. (1992). On the evolution of functional secondary metabolites (natural products). Mol. Microbiol. 6:29–34.
  • M. J. Sweeney, and A. D. W. Dobson. (1998). Mycotoxin production by Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium species. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 43:141–158.
  • M. J. Sweeney, and A. D. W. Dobson. (1999). Molecular biology of mycotoxin biosynthesis. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 175:149–163.
  • S. Tabata, H. Kamimura, A. Ibe, H. Hashimoto, and Y. Tamura. (1994). Degradation of aflatoxins by food additives. J. Food Prot. 57:42–47.
  • J. Tam, M. Mankotia, M. Mably, P. Pantazopoulos, R. J. Neil, P. Calway, and P. M. Scott. (2006). Survey of breakfast and infant cereals for aflatoxins B.1, B2, G1 and G2. Food Addit. Contam. 23:693–699.
  • M. Tamame, F. Antequera, J. R. Villanueva, and T. Santos. (1983). High-frequency conversion of a “fluffy” developmental phenotype in Aspergillus spp. by 5-azacytidine treatment: evidence for involvement of a single nuclear gene. Mol. Cell. Biol. 3:2287–2297.
  • J. R. Thurston, B. L. Deyoe, A. L. Baetz, J. L. Richard, and g. D. Booth. (1974). Effect of aflatoxin on serum proteins, complement activity and the antibody response to Brucella abortus in guinea pigs. Amer. J. Vet. Res. 35:1132–1134.
  • J. R. Thurston, J. L. Richard, S.J. Cysewski, A.C. Pier, and C. K. Graham. (1972). Effect of aflatoxin on complement activity in guinea pigs. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 138:300–303.
  • C. A. Townsend. (1997). Progress towards a biosynthetic rationale of the aflatoxin pathway. Pure Appl. Chem. 58:227–238.
  • N. Tran-Dinh, and D. Carter. (2000). Characterization of microsatellite loci in the aflatoxigenic fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. Molecular Ecology. 9:2155–2234.
  • R. K. Tripathi, and R. S. Misra. (1981). Effect of aflatoxin B1 on chromatin-bound ribonucleic acid polymerase and nucleic acid and protein synthesis in germinating maize seeds. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 42:389–393.
  • U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (1994). FDA Sec. 683.100: Action Levels for Aflatoxins in Animal Feeds. CPG 7126.33., http://www.abvt.org/public/docs/Aflatoxin_In_Animal_Feed.pdf.
  • U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2006). FDA FACTS #787470: Nationwide Survey of Distillers Grains for Aflatoxins. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, director of Surveillance and Compliance, http://www.fda.gov/cvm/AflatoxinAssign.htm.
  • U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2008). Molecular biology and natural toxins. In: Compliance Program Guidance Manual, 7307.001. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~acrobat/cp07001.pdf.
  • D. A. Van Dorp, A. S. M. van der Zijden, R. K. Beerthuis, S. Sparreboom, W. O. Ord, K. de Jong, and R. Keuning. (1963). Dihydroaflatoxin B, a metabolite of Aspergillus flavus. Remarks on the structure of aflatoxin B. Recl. Trav. Chim. Pay B 82:587–592.
  • H. P. van Egmond, R. C. Schothorst, and M. A. Jonker. (2007). Regulation relating to mycotoxin in food perspective in a global and European context. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 389:147–157.
  • T. R. Van Vleet, K. Macé, and R. A. Coulombe. (2002). Comparative aflatoxin B1 activation and cytotoxicity in human bronchial cells expressing cytochromes P450 1A2 and 3A41. Cancer Res. 62:105–112.
  • E. Waltz. (2008). Cellulosic ethanol booms despite unproven business models. Nat. Biotechnol. 26:8–9.
  • J. R. Wands, and H. E. Blum. (1991). Primary hepatocellular carcinoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 325:729–731.
  • D. T. Wicklow, C. E. McAlpin, and C. E. Platis. (1998). Characterization of the Aspergillus flavus population within an Illinois maize field. Mycol. Res. 102:263–268.
  • D. T. Wicklow, D. M. Wilson, and T. E. Nelson. (1993). Survival of Aspergillus flavus sclerotia and conidia buried in soil in Illinois and Georgia. Phytopathology 83:1141–1147.
  • D. T. Wicklow, and D.M. Wilson. (1986). Germination of Aspergillus flavus sclerotia in a Georgia maize field. Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 87:651–653.
  • J. Wieser, B. N. Lee, J. W. Fondon, and T. H. Asams. (1994). Genetic requirements for initiating asexual development in Aspergillus nidulans. Curr. Genet. 27:62–69.
  • J. R. Wilkinson, J. Yu, H. K. Abbas, B. E. Scheffler, H. S. Kim, W. C. Nierman, D. Bhatnagar, and T. E. Cleveland. (2007). Aflatoxin formation and gene expression in response to carbon source media shift in Aspergillus parasiticus. Food Addit. Contam. 24:1051–1060.
  • J. R. Wilkinson, J. Yu, J. M. Bland, W. C. Nierman, D. Bhatnagar, and T. E. Cleveland. (2007). Amino acid supplementation reveals differential regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus flavus NRRL 3357 and Aspergillus parasiticus SRRC 143. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 74:1308–1319.
  • W. P. Williams, and G. L. Windham. (2001). Registration of maize germplasm line Mp715. Crop Sci. 41:1374–1375.
  • G. L. Windham, and W. P. Williams. (2002). Evaluation of corn inbreds and advanced breeding lines for resistance to aflatoxin contamination in the field. Plant Dis. 86:232–234.
  • G. N. Wogan. (1992). Aflatoxins as risk factors for hepatocellular carcinoma in humans. Cancer Res. 52:2114s–2118s.
  • C. P. Woloshuk, K. R. Foutz, J. F. Brewer, D. Bhatnagar, T. E. Cleveland, and G. A. Payne. (1994). Molecular characterization of aflR, a regulatory locus for aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:2408–2414.
  • J. J. Wong, and D. P. H. Hsieh. (1976). Mutagenicity of aflatoxins related to their metabolism and carcinogenic potential. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 73:2241–2244.
  • B.-R. Wu, H. K. Abbas, B. W. Horn, W. P. Williams, and J. R. Wilkinson. (2007). SSR fingerprinting VCG groups of Aspergilli. Proceedings of the 2007 Annual Multi-crop Aflatoxin/Fumonisin Elimination & Fungal Genomics Workshops, U.S. Department of Agriculture, October22–24, Atlanta, GA, 36.
  • F. Wu, and G. P. Munkvold. (2008). Mycotoxins in Ethanol Co-Products: Modeling Economic Impacts on the Livestock Industry and Management Strategies. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 56:3900–3911.
  • T. D. Wylie, and L. G. Morehouse. (1978). Mycotoxic Fungi, Mycotoxins, Mycotoxicoses. Vol. II. New York: Marcel Dekker. 10–12.
  • K. Yabe. (2003). Pathway and genes of aflatoxin biosynthesis. In: F. Fierro, and J. Francisco. Microbial Secondary Metabolites: Biosynthesis, Genetics and Regulation. Trivandrum, India: Research Signpost. 227–251.
  • K. Yamatoya, J. Sugiyama, and H. Kuraishi. (1989). Electrophoretic comparison of enzymes as chemotaxonomic aid among Aspergillus taxa. (2) Aspergillus section Flavis. In: R. A. Samson, and J. I. Pitt. Modern Concepts in Penicillium and Aspergillus Classification. NATO ASI Series A: Life Sciences. Vol. 185. New York: Plenum. 395–405.
  • J. Yu. (2004). Genetics and biochemistry of mycotoxin synthesis. In: D. K. Arora. Fungal Biotechnology in Agricultural, Food, and Environmental Applications.. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 343–361.
  • J. Yu, D. Bhatnagar, and T. E. Cleveland. (2004). Completed sequence of aflatoxin pathway gene cluster in Aspergillus parasiticus. FEBS Lett. 564:126–130.
  • J. Yu, D. Bhatnagar, and K. C. Ehrlich. (2002). Aflatoxin biosynthesis. Rev. Iberoam. Micol. 19:191–200.
  • J. Yu, P.-K. Chang, J. W. Cary, M. Wright, D. Bhatnagar, T. E. Cleveland, G. A. Payne, and J. E. Linz. (1995). Comparative mapping of aflatoxin pathway gene clusters in Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:2365–2371.
  • J. Yu, P. K. Chang, K. C. Ehrlich, J. W. Cary, D. Bhatnagar, T. E. Cleveland, G. A. Payne, J. E. Linz, C. P. Woloshuk, and J. W. Bennett. (2004). Clustered pathway genes in aflatoxin biosynthesis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:1253–1262.
  • J. Yu, T. E. Cleveland, J. R. Wilkinson, B. C. Campbell, J. H. Kim, H. S. Kim, D. Bhatnagar, G. A. Payne, and W. C. Nierman. (2006). Aspergillus flavus expressed sequence tags and microarray as tools in understanding aflatoxin biosynthesis. Mycotoxin Research 22:16–21.
  • J.-H. Yu, R. A. Butchko, M. Fernandes, N. P. Keller, T. J. Leonard, and T. H. Adams. (1996). Conservation of structure and function of the aflatoxin regulatory gene aflR from Aspergillus nidulans and A. flavus. Curr. Genet. 29:549–555.
  • J.-H. Yu, and N. P. Keller. (2005). Regulation of secondary metabolism in filamentous fungi. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol. 43:437–458.
  • R. M. Zablotowicz, H. A. Abbas, and M. A. Locke. (2007). Population ecology of Aspergillus flavus associated with Mississippi Delta soils. Food Addit. Contam. 24:1102–1108.
  • H.-B. Zhang, and C. Wu. (2001). BACs as tools for genome sequencing. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 39:195–209.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.