Publication Cover
International Journal of Architectural Heritage
Conservation, Analysis, and Restoration
Volume 16, 2022 - Issue 1
2,475
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Challenges in the Analysis of Historic Concrete: Understanding the Limitations of Techniques, the Variability of the Material and the Importance of Representative Samples

ORCID Icon &
Pages 33-48 | Received 28 Jan 2020, Accepted 27 Mar 2020, Published online: 27 Apr 2020

References

  • Abrams, D. A. 1922. Proportioning concrete mixtures. ACI Journal Proceedings 18 (2):174–81.
  • ASTM International. 1998. C 457-98: Standard test method for microscopical determination of parameters of the air-void system in hardened concrete. West Conshohocken: ASTM International.
  • ASTM International. 2018. C 856-18a: Standard practice for petrographic examination of hardened concrete. West Conshohocken: ASTM International.
  • Axon, E. O. 1962. A method of estimating the original mix composition of hardened concrete using physical tests. Proceedings, ASTM International 62:1068–80.
  • Basheer, P. A. M., and S. Barbhuiya. 2010. Pore structure and transport processes. In Concrete durability: A practical guide to the design of durable concrete structures, ed. M. Soutsos, 14–34. London: Thomas Telford.
  • BSI (British Standards Institution). 2009a. BS EN 12390-7:2009, testing hardened concrete, Part 7: Density of hardened concrete. London: BSI.
  • BSI (British Standards Institution). 2009b. BS EN 12390-2:2009, testing hardened concrete, Part 2: Making and curing specimens for strength tests. London: BSI.
  • BSI (British Standards Institution). 2011. BS EN 197-1:2011, cement, Part 1: Composition specification and conformity criteria for common cements. London: BSI.
  • BSI (British Standards Institution). 2012a. BS EN 12390-1:2012, testing hardened concrete, Part 1: Shape, dimensions and other requirements for specimens and moulds. London: BSI.
  • BSI (British Standards Institution). 2012b. BS EN 933-1:2012, tests for geometrical properties of aggregates, Part 1: Determination of particle size distribution - sieving method. London: BSI.
  • BSI (British Standards Institution). 2013a. BS 1881-125:2013, testing concrete, Part 125: Methods for mixing and sampling fresh concrete in the laboratory. London: BSI.
  • BSI (British Standards Institution). 2013b. BS EN 1097-6:2013, tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates, Part 6: Determination of particle density and water absorption. London: BSI.
  • BSI (British Standards Institution). 2015. BS 1881-124:2015, testing concrete, Part 124: Methods for analysis of hardened concrete. London: BSI.
  • BSI (British Standards Institution). 2016. BS 1881-211:2016, testing concrete, Part 211: Procedure and terminology for the petrographic examination of hardened concrete. London: BSI.
  • Bussell, M. 2001. The development of reinforced concrete design and practice. In Historic concrete: Background to appraisal, ed. J. Sutherland, D. Humm, and M. Chrimes, 83–103. London: Thomas Telford.
  • Concrete Society. 2009. Historical approaches to the design of concrete buildings and structures. Technical Report No. 70, Concrete Society, Camberley, Surrey.
  • Concrete Society. 2014. Analysis of hardened concrete. Technical Report No. 32, Concrete Society, Camberley, Surrey.
  • Corish, A. T., and P. J. Jackson. 1982. Portland cement properties - past and present. Concrete 16 (7):16–18.
  • Department for Culture, Media and Sport. 1979. Ancient monuments and archaeological areas act. London: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office.
  • Eden, M. A. 2010. SR2, A code of practice for the petrographic examination of concrete. London, United Kingdom: Applied Petrography Group.
  • English Heritage. 2012. Practical building conservation: Concrete. 1st ed. London: Ashgate.
  • Halstead, P. E. 1961. The early history of Portland cement. Transactions of the Newcomen Society 34 (1):37–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1179/tns.1961.003.
  • Ishida, T., and K. Maekawa. 2001. Modelling of pH profile in pore water based on mass transport and chemical equilibrium theory. Concrete Library of JSCE 37:131–46.
  • Kreijger, P. C. 1984. The skin of concrete composition and properties. Matériaux et Construction 17:275–83. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02479083.
  • Lerch, W. 1938. Approximate glass content of commercial Portland cement clinker. Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 20 (January):77–81. doi:https://doi.org/10.6028/jres.020.045.
  • Neville, A. M. 2003. How closely can we determine the water-cement ratio of hardened concrete? Materials and Structures 36 (June):311–18. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02480870.
  • Neville, A. M. 2011. Properties of concrete. 5th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
  • Neville, A. M., and J. J. Brooks. 2010. Concrete technology. 2nd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
  • Nordtest Method. 1999. NT BUILD 361 - Concrete, hardened: Water-cement ratio, 2nd ed.Espoo: Nordic Council of Ministers.
  • Pasley, C. W. 1826 [1862]. Practical architecture: Brickwork, mortars and limes. Chatham: Royal Engineer Establishment.
  • Polivka, M., J. W. Kelly, and C. H. Best. 1956. A physical method for determining the composition of hardened concrete. Cement and Concrete, ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 205, September, 135–51, Philadelphia.
  • Shacklock, B. W. 1959. Comparison of gap and continuously graded concrete mixes. Technical Report TRA/240. Cement and Concrete Association, London.
  • Skinner, M. G. 1980. Chemical analysis of hardened concrete – An investigation of within batch variation and its effects on unit cement content. Crowthorne: Institute of Concrete Technology.
  • Somerville, G. 2001. Cement and concrete as materials: Changes in properties, production and performance. In Historic concrete: Background to appraisal, ed. J. Sutherland, D. Humm, and M. Chrimes, 105–16. London: Thomas Telford.
  • St John, D. A. 1994. The use of fluorescent dyes and stains in the petrographic examination of concrete. Industrial research limited report, Vol. 243. Lower Hutt: Industrial Research Limited.
  • Taylor, H. F. 1997. Cement chemistry. 2nd ed. London: Thomas Telford.
  • Wong, H. S., and N. R. Buenfeld. 2009. Determining the water-cement ratio, cement content, water content and degree of hydration of hardened cement paste: Method development and validation on paste samples. Cement and Concrete Research 39:957–65. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.06.013.
  • Yeomans, D. 1997. Construction since 1900: Materials. 1st ed. London: B.T. Batsford.