Police officer involved shootings – retrospective study of situational characteristics

References

• Applegate, R. (1976). Kill or get killed; riot control, techniques, manhandling, and close combat for police and the military . Boulder, Co: Paladin Press, Paladin Enterprises.
   Google Scholar
• Artwohl, A. (2002). Perceptual and memory distortion during officer-involved shootings. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin , 71 , 18–24.
   Google Scholar
• Atkins, V. J. , & Norris, W. A. (2004). Survival scores research project: FLETC. . Glynco: U.S. Department of Homeland Security.10.1037/e584722011-001
   Google Scholar
• Aveni, T. J. (2003). Officer-involved shootings: What we didn’t know has hurt us. The Police Policy Studies Council .
   Google Scholar
• Bertilsson, J. , & Fredriksson, P. J. (2014). Fire-arms and self-defense training in Sweden . In P. Stanislas (Ed.), International perspectives on police education and training (pp. 128–137). Oxon: Routledge Frontiers on Criminal Justice, Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bertilsson, J. , Fredriksson, P. J. , Piledahl, L. F. , Magnusson, M. , & Fransson, P. A. (2014). Opportunities and challenges of research collaboration between police authorities and university organizations. In F. Lemieux , G. den Heyer , & D. K. Das (Eds.), Economic development, crime, and policing; global perspectives (pp. 163–180). New York, NY: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, International Police Executives Symposium Co-Publication.
   Google Scholar
• Bertilsson, J. , Patel, M. , Fredriksson, P. J. , Piledahl, L. F. , Magnusson, M. , & Fransson, P. A. (2013). Efficiency of simulated realistic scenarios to provide high psychological stress training for police officers. In M. C. Guzman , A. M. Das , & D. K. Das (Eds.), The evolution of policing: Worldwide innovations and insights (pp. 219–236). London: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. doi:10.1201/b16079-17
   Google Scholar
• Blair, J. P. , Nichols, T. , Burns, D. , & Curnutt, J. (2013). Active shooter events and response . Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.10.1201/b14996
   Google Scholar
• Bratton, W. J. (2014). 2013 Annual firearms discharge report . New York, NY: New York City Police Department.
   Google Scholar
• Daffertshofer, A. , van den Berg, C. , & Beek, P. J. (1999). A dynamical model for mirror movements. Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena , 132 , 243–266.10.1016/S0167-2789(99)00044-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dysterheft, J. L. , Lewinski, W. J. , Seefeldt, D. A. , & Pettitt, R. W. (2013). The influence of start position, initial step type, and usage of a focal point on sprinting performance. International Journal of Exercise Science , 6 , 320–327.
   Google Scholar
• Enoka, R. (2003). Involuntary muscle contractions and the unintentional discharge of a firearm. Law Enforcement Executive Forum , 3 , 29–39.
   Google Scholar
• Fackler, M. L. (1996). Gunshot wound review. Annals of Emergency Medicine , 28 , 194–203.10.1016/S0196-0644(96)70062-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairbairn, W. E. , & Sykes, E. A. (1942). Shooting to live . London: Oliver and Boyd.
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg, S. F. (2007). Active shooters on college campuses: Conflicting advice, roles of the individual and first responder, and the need to maintain perspective. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness , 1 , S57–S61. doi:10.1097/DMP.0b013e318149f492
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grossman, D. (1995). On killing: The psychological cost of learning to kill in war and society . New York, NY: Back Bay Books.
   Google Scholar
• Grossman, D. , & Christensen, L. W. (2004). On combat: The psychology and physiology of deadly conflict in war and peace . Millstadt, IL: PPCT Research Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Heim, C. , Schmidtbleicher, D. , & Niebergall, E. (2006). The risk of involuntary firearms discharge. Hum Factors , 48 , 413–421.10.1518/001872006778606813
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard, I. S. , Ingram, J. N. , Kording, K. P. , & Wolpert, D. M. (2009). Statistics of natural movements are reflected in motor errors. Journal of Neurophysiology , 102 , 1902–1910. doi:10.1152/jn.00013.2009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, R. W. , Daddario, R. , Waters, J. R. , Alvarez, R. , Andersen, J. , Biddle, C. , & Riggio, M. (2011). Active shooter: Recommendations and analysis for risk mitigation . New York, NY: New York City Police Department.
   Google Scholar
• Klinger, D. (2005). Social theory and the street cop: The case of deadly force. Ideas in American policing. Police Foundation , 7 , 1–15.
   Google Scholar
• LeDoux, J. E. (2000). Emotion circuits in the brain. Annual Review Of Neuroscience , 23 , 155–184. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.155
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linsdell, G. (2012). Police tactical group critical incident training: A psycho-physiological investigation of two models . Bathurst: Charles Sturt University, LAP Lambert Academic Publishing AG & Co KG.
   Google Scholar
• MacArthur, S. J. , Sargent, S. , Odle, M. , Stambaugh, D. , Barr, L. , Santoyo, M. , & von Voigt, R. (2013). Los Angeles Police Department, 2012 Use of force review with 2013 statistical overview . Los Angeles, CA: Los Angeles Police Department, Use of Force Review Division.
   Google Scholar
• Masters, R. S. W. (1992). Knowledge, knerves and know-how: The role of explicit versus implicit knowledge in the breakdown of a complex motor skill under pressure. British Journal of Psychology , 83 , 343–358.10.1111/bjop.1992.83.issue-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mather, M. , & Lighthall, N. R. (2012). Both risk and reward are processed differently in decisions made under stress. Current Directions in Psychological Science , 21 , 36–41. doi:10.1177/0963721411429452
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maxwell, J. P. , Masters, R. S. , Kerr, E. , & Weedon, E. (2001). The implicit benefit of learning without errors. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 54 , 1049–1068. doi:10.1080/713756014
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDowell, M. J. , & Wolff, P. H. (1997). A functional analysis of human mirror movements. Journal of Motor Behavior , 29 , 85–96. doi:10.1080/00222899709603472
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyerhoff, J. L. , Norris, W. , Saviolakis, G. A. , Wollert, T. , Burge, B. , Atkins, V. , & Spielberger, C. (2004). Evaluating performance of law enforcement personnel during a stressful training scenario. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences , 1032 , 250–253. doi:10.1196/annals.1314.031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mistry, D. , Minnaar, A. , Redpath, J. , & Dhlamini, J. (2001). The use of force by members of the South African Police Service: Case studies from seven policing areas in Gauteng . Johannesburg: Institute for Human Rights & Criminal Justice Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Murray, K. R. (2004). Training at the speed of life, vol. 1: The definitive textbook for police and military reality based training . Gotha, Fl: Armiger Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Nieuwenhuys, A. , & Oudejans, R. (2010). Effects of anxiety on handgun shooting behavior of police officers: A pilot study. Anxiety Stress Coping , 23 , 225–233. doi:10.1080/10615800902977494
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ordog, G. J. , Dornhoffer, P. , Ackroyd, G. , Wasserberger, J. , Bishop, M. , Shoemaker, W. , & Balasubramanium, S. (1994). Spent bullets and their injuries: The result of firing weapons into the sky. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery , 37 , 1003–1006.10.1097/00005373-199412000-00023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oudejans, R. R. (2008). Reality-based practice under pressure improves handgun shooting performance of police officers. Ergonomics , 51 , 261–273. doi:10.1080/00140130701577435
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oudejans, R. R. , & Nieuwenhuys, A. (2009). Perceiving and moving in sports and other high-pressure contexts. Progress in Brain Research , 174 , 35–48. doi:10.1016/S0079-6123(09)01304-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarre, R. (1993). Police use of firearms, issues in safety . Second National Conference on Violence convened by the Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, R. , & Lee, T. (2011). Motor control and learning – A behavioral emphasis . Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
   Google Scholar
• Siddle, B. K. (1995). Sharpening the warrior’s edge: The psychology & science of training . Millstadt, IL: PPCT Research Publications, PPCT Management Systems.
   Google Scholar
• Swank, R. L. , & Marchand, W. E. (1946). Combat neuroses; development of combat exhaustion. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry , 55 , 236–247.10.1001/archneurpsyc.1946.02300140067004
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vonk, K. D. (2008). Police performance under stress. Law and Order , 56 , 86–92.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, L. A. , Brunk, G. G. , & Meyer, C. K. (1990). Situational effects in police officer assaults: The case of patrol unit size. Police Journal , 63 , 260–271.
   Google Scholar
• Yerkes, R. M. , & Dodson, J. D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology , 18 , 459–482.10.1002/(ISSN)1550-7149
   Google Scholar