References
- Adams, K. (1995). Measuring the prevalence of police abuse of force. In W. Geller & H. Toch (Eds.), And justice for all: Understanding and controlling police abuse of force (pp. 61–97). Police Executive Research Forum.
- American Time Use Survey. (2017). American time use survey – 2016 results. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/atus.pdf
- Augustyn, M. B. (2016). Updating perceptions of (in) justice. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 53(2), 255–286. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427815616991
- Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5(4), 323. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.5.4.323
- Benekos, P. J., & Merlo, A. V. (2006). Crime control, politics and policy (2nd ed.). Anderson Publishing.
- Boda, Z., & Szabó, G. (2011). The media and attitudes towards crime and the justice system: A qualitative approach. European Journal of Criminology, 8(4), 329–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370811411455
- Bradford, B., Jackson, J., & Stanko, E. A. (2009). Contact and confidence: Revisiting the impact of public encounters with the police. Policing and Society, 19(1), 20–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439460802457594
- Britto, S., Hughes, T., Saltzman, K., & Stroh, C. (2007). Does “special” mean young, white and female? Deconstructing the meaning of “special” in law & order: Special victims unit. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 14(1), 39–57. http://www.albany.edu/scj/jcjpc/vol14is1/britto.pdf
- Brown, B., & Benedict, W. R. (2002). Perceptions of the police: Past findings, methodological issues, conceptual issues and policy implications. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 25(3), 543–580. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510210437032
- Bushman, B. J., & Huesmann, L. R. (2006). Short-term and long-term effects of violent media on aggression in children and adults. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160(4), 348–352. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.160.4.348
- Callanan, V. J., & Rosenberger, J. S. (2011). Media and public perceptions of the police: Examining the impact of race and personal experience. Policing & Society, 21(2), 167–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2010.540655
- Cao, L. (2015). Differentiating confidence in the police, trust in the police, and satisfaction with the police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 38(2), 239–249. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-12-2014-0127
- Chermak, S., McGarrell, E., & Gruenewald, J. (2006). Media coverage of police misconduct and attitudes toward police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 29(2), 261–281. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510610667664
- Chiricos, T., & Eschholz, S. (2002). The racial and ethnic typification of crime and the criminal typification of race and ethnicity in local television news. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 39(4), 400–420. https://doi.org/10.1177/002242702237286
- Chiricos, T., Eschholz, S., & Gertz, M. (1997). Crime, news and fear of crime: Toward an identification of audience effects. Social Problems, 44(3), 342–357. https://doi.org/10.2307/3097181
- Choi, J. (2018). Media exposure, confidence in the police, and police legitimacy. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved from https://knowledge.library.iup.edu/etd/1626
- Choi, J. (2019). Elaborating differential impact of media exposure on perceptions of police between criminal justice majors and non-criminal justice majors. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 30(4), 567–584. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511253.2019.1617324
- Choi, J., Han, B., & Lee, Y. (2014). Media consumption and fear of crime: An empirical study focused on the resonance hypothesis. Journal of Korean Criminological Association, 8(3), 133–161. http://www.papersearch.net/thesis/article.asp?key=3296948
- Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral science. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
- Custers, K., & Van den Bulck, J. (2011). The relationship of dispositional and situational fear of crime with television viewing and direct experience with crime. Mass Communication and Society, 14(5), 600–619. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2010.530382
- DeVellis, R. F. (2012). Scale development: Theory and applications (Vol. 26). Sage.
- Dirikx, A., Gelders, D., & Van den Bulck, J. (2013). Adolescent perceptions of the performance and fairness of the police: Examining the impact of television exposure. Mass Communication and Society, 16(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2011.650341
- Dirikx, A., & Van den Bulck, J. (2014). Media use and the process-based model for police cooperation: An integrative approach towards explaining adolescents’ intentions to cooperate with the police. British Journal of Criminology, 54(2), 344–365. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azt063
- Dirikx, A., Van den Bulck, J., & Parmentier, S. (2012). The police as societal moral agents:“procedural justice” and the analysis of police fiction. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 56(1), 38–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2011.651187
- Donahue, A. K., & Miller, J. M. (2006). Experience, attitudes, and willingness to pay for public safety. American Review of Public Administration, 36(4), 395–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/0275074005285666
- Donovan, K. M., & Klahm, I. C. F. (2015). The role of entertainment media in perceptions of police use of force. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42(12), 1261–1281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854815604180
- Dowler, K. (2002). Media influence on citizen attitudes toward police effectiveness. Policing and Society, 12(3), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439460290032369
- Dowler, K. (2003). Media consumption and public attitudes toward crime and justice: The relationship between fear of crime, punitive attitudes, and perceived police effectiveness. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 10(2), 109–126.
- Dowler, K., & Zawilski, V. (2007). Public perceptions of police misconduct and discrimination: Examining the impact of media consumption. Journal of Criminal Justice, 35(2), 193–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2007.01.006
- Durose, M., Smith, E., & Langan, P. (2007). Contacts between the police and the public, 2005. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
- Eith, C., & Durose, M. R. (2011). Contacts between police and the public, 2008. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
- Eschholz, S., Blackwell, B. S., Gertz, M., & Chiricos, T. (2002). Race and attitudes toward the police: Assessing the effects of watching “reality” police programs. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(4), 327–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2352(02)00133-2
- Eschholz, S., Chiricos, T., & Gertz, M. (2003). Television and fear of crime: Program types, audience traits, and the mediating effect of perceived neighborhood racial composition. Social Problems, 50(3), 395–415. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2003.50.3.395
- Gau, J. M. (2011). The convergent and discriminant validity of procedural justice and police legitimacy: An empirical test of core theoretical propositions. Journal of Criminal Justice, 39(6), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2011.09.004
- Gau, J. M. (2014). Procedural justice and police legitimacy: A test of measurement and structure. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 39(2), 187–205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-013-9220-8
- Gauthier, J. F., & Graziano, L. M. (2018). News media consumption and attitudes about police: In search of theoretical orientation and advancement. Journal of Crime and Justice, 41(5), 504–520. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2018.1472625
- Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., Signorielli, N., & Shanahan, J. (2002). Growing up with television: Cultivation processes. In J. Bryant & D. Zillman (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (Vol. 2, pp. 43–67). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
- Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976). Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of Communication, 26(2), 172–199. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1976.tb01397.x
- Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1980). The “mainstreaming” of America: Violence profile no. 11. Journal of Communication, 30(3), 10–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1980.tb01987.x
- Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Signorielli, N., Morgan, M., & Jackson‐Beeck, M. (1979). The demonstration of power: Violence profile no. 10. Journal of Communication, 29(3), 177–196. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1979.tb01731.x
- Graber, D. A. (1980). Crime news and the public. Praeger.
- Graziano, L. M. (2019). News media and perceptions of police: A state-of-the-art-review. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 42(2), 209–225. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-11-2017-0134
- Graziano, L. M., Schuck, A., & Martin, C. (2010). Police misconduct, media coverage, and public perceptions of racial profiling: An experiment. Justice Quarterly, 27(1), 52–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418820902763046
- Harris, C. J. (2010). Problem officers? Analyzing problem behavior patterns from a large cohort. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(2), 216–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.01.003
- Hohl, K., Stanko, B., & Newburn, T. (2012). The effect of the 2011 London disorder on public opinion of police and attitudes towards crime, disorder, and sentencing. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 7(1), 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/pas055
- Intravia, J., Wolff, K. T., Paez, R., & Gibbs, B. R. (2017). Investigating the relationship between social media consumption and fear of crime: A partial analysis of mostly young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 77, 158–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.047
- Intravia, J., Wolff, K. T., & Piquero, A. R. (2018). Investigating the effects of media consumption on attitudes toward police legitimacy. Deviant Behavior, 39(8), 963–980. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2017.1343038
- Jacob, H. (1971). Black and white perceptions of justice in the city. Law and Society Review, 6(1), 69–90. https://doi.org/10.2307/3052913
- Johnson, D., Wilson, D. B., Maguire, E. R., & Lowrey-Kinberg, B. V. (2017). Race and perceptions of police: Experimental results on the impact of procedural (in) justice. Justice Quarterly, 34(7), 1184–1212. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2017.1343862
- Kaminski, R. J., & Jefferis, E. S. (1998). The effect of a violent televised arrest on public perceptions of the police: A partial test of Easton’s theoretical framework. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 21(4), 683–706. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639519810241692
- Kappeler, V. E., & Potter, G. W. (2017). The mythology of crime and criminal justice (4th ed.). Waveland Press.
- Kochel, T. R. (2019). Explaining racial differences in Ferguson’s impact on local residents’ trust and perceived legitimacy: Policy implications for police. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 30(3), 374–405. https://doi.org/10.1177/0887403416684923
- Kumar, S., & Shah, N. (2018). False information on web and social media: A survey. Social Media Analytics: Advances and Applications. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1804.08559.pdf
- Lambert, E. G. (2004). Assessing the crime and punishment views of criminal justice majors: How different are they from other majors? Criminal Justice Studies, 17(3), 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601042000281097
- Lasley, J. R. (1994). The impact of the Rodney King incident on citizen attitudes toward police. Policing and Society: An International Journal, 3(4), 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.1994.9964673
- Lee, J., & Gibbs, J. C. (2015). Race and attitudes toward police: The mediating effect of social distance. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 38(2), 314–332. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-03-2015-0034
- Lee, J., Lim, H., & Lee, H. (2015). Differential social distance and confidence in the police. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 17(3), 147–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355715596305
- Li, Y., Ren, L., & Luo, F. (2016). Is bad stronger than good? The impact of police-citizen encounters on public satisfaction with police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 39(1), 109–126. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-05-2015-0058
- Lim, H. (2015). Social modeling effects on perception of the police: Focus on indirect police contact experience among college students. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 38(4), 675–689. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-02-2015-0018
- Maguire, E. R., Lowrey, B. V., & Johnson, D. (2017). Evaluating the relative impact of positive and negative encounters with police: A randomized experiment. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 13(3), 367–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-016-9276-9
- Matsa, K. E., & Mitchell, A. (2014). 8 key takeaways about social media and news. http://www.journalism.org/2014/03/26/8-key-takeaways-about-social-media-and-news/
- Mazerolle, L., Bennett, S., Davis, J., Sargeant, E., & Manning, M. (2013). Legitimacy in policing: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 9(1), 1–146. https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2013.1
- McCaffrey, R. J., Ortega, A., Orsillo, S. M., Nelles, W. B., & Haase, R. F. (1992). Practice effects in repeated neuropsychological assessments. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 6(1), 32–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854049208404115
- Micucci, A. J., & Gomme, I. M. (2005). American police and subcultural support for the use of excessive force. Journal of Criminal Justice, 33(5), 487–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2005.06.002
- Miller, J., & Davis, R. C. (2008). Unpacking public attitudes to the police: Contrasting perceptions of misconduct with traditional measures of satisfaction. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 10(1), 9–22. https://doi.org/10.1350/ijps.2008.10.1.9
- Morgan, M., Shanahan, J., & Signorielli, N. (2014). Cultivation theory in the twenty‐first century. In R. S. Fortner & P. M. Fackler (Eds.), The handbook of media and mass communication theory (pp. 480–497). John Wiley and Sons.
- Morgan, M., & Shanahan, J. (1997). Two decades of cultivation research: An appraisal and meta-analysis. Annals of the International Communication Association, 20(1), 1–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.1997.11678937
- Morgan, M., & Shanahan, J. (2010). The state of cultivation. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54(2), 337–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151003735018
- Myhill, A., & Bradford, B. (2012). Can police enhance public confidence by improving quality of service? Results from two surveys in England and Wales. Policing and Society, 22(4), 397–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2011.641551
- Nabi, R. L., & Sullivan, J. L. (2001). Does television viewing relate to engagement in protective action against crime? A cultivation analysis from a theory of reasoned action perspective. Communication Research, 28(6), 802–825. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365001028006004
- Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175
- Nix, J., & Wolfe, S. E. (2016). Sensitivity to the ferguson effect: The role of managerial organizational justice. Journal of Criminal Justice, 47(1), 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2016.06.002
- Nix, J., & Wolfe, S. E. (2017). The impact of negative publicity on police self-legitimacy. Justice Quarterly, 34(1), 84–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2015.1102954
- Parry, M. M., Moule, R. K., & Dario, L. M. (2019). Technology-mediated exposure to police–citizen encounters: A quasi-experimental assessment of consequences for citizen perceptions. Justice Quarterly, 36(3), 412–436.
- Peeters, G., & Czapinski, J. (1990). Positive-negative asymmetry in evaluations: The distinction between affective and informational negativity effects. European Review of Social Psychology, 1(1), 33–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792779108401856
- Pollock, J. M. (2017). Ethical dilemmas and decisions in criminal justice (10th ed.). Cengage Learning.
- President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing. (2015). Final report. http://www.policemag.com/resources/documents/21stcpolicingtaskforce-finalreport.pdf
- Reichel, P. L. (2017). Comparative criminal justice systems: A topical approach (7th ed.). Prentice Hall.
- Reisig, M. D., Bratton, J., & Gertz, M. G. (2007). The construct validity and refinement of process-based policing measures. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34(8), 1005–1028. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854807301275
- Roche, S. P., Pickett, J. T., & Gertz, M. (2016). The scary world of online news? Internet news exposure and public attitudes toward crime and justice. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 32(2), 215–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-015-9261-x
- Roster, C. A., Lucianetti, L., & Albaum, G. (2015). Exploring slider vs. categorical response formats in web-based surveys. Journal of Research Practice, 11(1), 1–19. http://jrp.icaap.org/index.php/jrp/article/view/509/433
- Rozin, P., & Royzman, E. B. (2001). Negativity bias, negativity dominance, and contagion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(4), 296–320. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0504_2
- Sahin, N. M., Braga, A. A., Apel, R., & Brunson, R. K. (2017). The impact of procedurally-just policing on citizen perceptions of police during traffic stops: The Adana randomized controlled trial. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 33(4), 701–726. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-016-9308-7
- Shadish, W., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Houghton Mifflin Boston.
- Shearer, E., & Matsa, K. E. (2018). News use across social media platforms 2018. http://www.journalism.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2018/09/PJ_2018.09.10_social-media-news_FINAL.pdf
- Sheley, J. F., & Ashkins, C. D. (1981). Crime, crime news, and crime views. Public Opinion Quarterly, 45(4), 492–506. https://doi.org/10.1086/268683
- Shrum, L. J. (2007). The implications of survey method for measuring cultivation effects. Human Communication Research, 33(1), 64–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00289.x
- Sikkel, D., Steenbergen, R., & Gras, S. (2014). Clicking vs. dragging: Different uses of the mouse and their implications for online surveys. Public Opinion Quarterly, 78(1), 177–190. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nft077
- Skogan, W. G. (2006). Asymmetry in the impact of encounters with police. Policing & Society, 16(2), 99–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439460600662098
- Skogan, W. G. (2012). Assessing asymmetry: The life course of a research project. Policing and Society, 22(3), 270–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2012.704035
- Sun, I. Y., Wu, Y., Triplett, R., & Wang, S.-Y. K. (2016). The impact of media exposure and political party orientation on public perceptions of police in Taiwan. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 39(4), 694–709. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-08-2015-0099
- Surette, R. (1992). Methodological problems in determining media effects on criminal justice: A review and suggestions for the future. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 6(4), 291–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/088740349200600402
- Surette, R. (2015). Media, crime, and criminal justice (5th ed.). Nelson Education.
- Tankebe, J. (2013). Viewing things differently: The dimensions of public perceptions of police legitimacy. Criminology, 51(1), 103–135. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2012.00291.x
- Taylor, S. E. (1991). Asymmetrical effects of positive and negative events: The mobilization-minimization hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 110(1), 67–85. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.67
- Tsoudis, O. (2000). Does majoring in criminal justice affect perceptions of criminal justice. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 11(2), 225–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511250000084881
- Tyler, T. R. (2006). Viewing CSI and the threshold of guilt: Managing truth and justice in reality and fiction. Yale Law Journal, 115(5), 1050–1085. https://doi.org/10.2307/20455645
- Tyler, T. R., & Huo, Y. J. (2002). Trust and the rule of law. Russell Sage.
- Ulmer, C., McFadden, B., & Nerenz, D. R. (2009). Race, ethnicity, and language data: Standardization for health care quality improvement. National Academies Press.
- Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 359(6380), 1146–1151. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559
- Walker, S. (2012). Institutionalizing police accountability reforms: The problem of making police reforms endure. Saint Lewis University Public Law Review, 32(1), 57–91. https://scholarship.law.slu.edu/plr/vol32/iss1/7
- Walker, S., Alpert, G. P., & Kenney, D. J. (2000). Early warning systems for police: Concept, history, and issues. Police Quarterly, 3(2), 132–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611100003002001
- Weitzer, R. (2015). American policing under fire: Misconduct and reform. Society, 52(5), 475–480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12115-015-9931-1
- Weitzer, R., & Tuch, S. A. (2004). Race and perceptions of police misconduct. Social Problems, 51(3), 305–325. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2004.51.3.305
- Wolfe, S. E., & Nix, J. (2016). The alleged “ferguson effect” and police willingness to engage in community partnership. Law and Human Behavior, 40(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000164
- Wu, Y. (2014). The impact of media on public trust in legal authorities in China and Taiwan. Asian Journal of Criminology, 9(2), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11417-013-9177-z
- Wu, Y., Smith, B. W., & Sun, I. Y. (2013). Race/ethnicity and perceptions of police bias: The case of Chinese immigrants. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 11(1–2), 71–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2012.735989