References
- Adam, G. M. (2018). New “control of subject(s) during an encounter” draft bulletin [letter written December 7, 2018 to William Scott, chief of police]. Retrieved December 18, 2020, from http://d31hzlhk6di2h5.cloudfront.net/20181212/87/ca/c4/f8/c7e2a7b33d8cddd681572ddd/LT_Chief_William_Scott_re_New_Bulletin__00062818xDC64A_.pdf
- Associated Press. (2018, June 29). PA officer uses stun gun on sitting man. [YouTube Video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MzcIfCIucaY&feature=emb_title
- Bennell, C., Blaskovits, B., Jenkins, B., Semple, T., Khanizadeh, A.-J., Brown, A. S., & Jones, N. J. (2020). Promising practices for de-escalation and use-of-force training in the police setting: A narrative review. Policing: An International Journal, 44(3), 377–404. https://doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm-06-2020-0092
- Blair, J. P., Martaindale, M. H., & Sandel, W. L. (2019). Peek or push: An examination of two types of room clearing tactics for active shooter event response. SAGE Open, 9(3), 215824401987105. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019871052
- Blake, D. (2016, January 13). What officers really need to know about the 21-foot kill zone. Police 1. https://www.police1.com/police-products/firearms/articles/what-officers-really-need-to-know-about-the-21-foot-kill-zone-fhQUJ72iE2aOJpkr/
- Blake, D., & Bartel, L. (2018). Holster and handgun: Does equipment effect response time? Law Enforcement Executive Forum, 18(2), 39–47.
- Calicchio, D. (2018, December 12). Making suspects sit on ground is demeaning, San Francisco police chief says: Report. Fox News Channel. https://www.foxnews.com/us/making-suspects-sit-on-ground-is-demeaning-san-francisco-police-chief-says-report
- Campbell, A., Roelofs, A., Davey, P., & Straker, L. (2012). Response time, pistol fire position variability, and pistol draw success rates for hip and thigh holsters. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 55(2), 425–434. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720812453466
- CBS. (2016, July 9). Mayor: Officer seen Tasing man sitting on curb won’t be suspended. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/lancaster-pennsylvania-police-officer-philip-bernot-who-tased-man-sitting-on-curb-wont-be-suspended-mayor-says/
- Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Erlbaum.
- Dysterheft, J. L., Lewinski, W. J., Seefeldt, D. A., & Pettitt, R. W. (2013). The influence of start position, initial step type, and usage of a focal point on sprinting performance. International Journal of Exercise Science, 6(4), 320–327. https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/ijes/vol6/iss4/7/
- Engel, R. S., McManus, H. D., & Isaza, G. T. (2020). Moving beyond “Best Practice”: Experiences in police reform and a call for evidence to reduce officer-involved shootings. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 687(1), 146–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716219889328
- Eskenazi, J. (2018, December 13). SFPD Chief Bill Scott’s proposal to cease making suspects sit on the street generates pushback from cops, union. Mission Local. https://missionlocal.org/2018/12/chief-bill-scotts-proposal-to-cease-making-suspects-sit-down-during-police-encounters-generates-pushback-from-cops-union/
- Fachner, G., & Thorkildsen, Z. (2015). Ambushes of police: Environment, incident dynamics, and the aftermath of surprise attacks against law enforcement. Officer of Community Oriented Policing Services.
- Fatura, N. (2013, February 28). Why curbs are an officer’s best friend. Police 1. https://www.police1.com/women-officers/articles/why-curbs-are-an-officers-best-friend-fghT0X3SCX9XyMrR/
- Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G* power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146
- Field, A. (2018). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). Sage.
- Francis, E. L., Tyrrell, R. A., & Owens, D. A. (2020). Perception response time and its misapplication: An historical and forensic perspective. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, 21(3), 327–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/1463922X.2020.1736204
- Habash, M. (2016, February 22). How defensive positions keep officers safe. Police 1.https://www.police1.com/officer-survival/articles/how-defensive-positions-keep-officers-safer-DXuQ6XrPzwZNdRmp/
- Kliem, V. (2019, September 25). The 21-foot “rule” is back in the news. Force Science News. Lexipol. https://www.lexipol.com/resources/blog/the-21-foot-rule-is-back-in-the-news/
- Klinger, D. (2020). Organizational accidents and deadly police-involved violence: Some thoughts on extending theory, expanding research, and improving police practice. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 687(1), 28–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716219892913
- Koga, R. K., Nelson, J. G., & Koga, R. K. (1967). The koga method: Police weaponless control and defense techniques. Glencoe Press.
- Lancaster Bureau of Police. (2018, June 28). Arrest details. https://lancaster.crimewatchpa.com/lbop/19659/arrests/williams-sean-d-criminal-warrant-possession-controlled-substance-pcp-and-public
- Lewinski, W. J., Dysterheft, J. L., Bushey, J. M., & Dicks, N. D. (2015). Ambushes leading cause of officer fatalities – When every second counts: Analysis of officer movement from trained ready tactical positions. Law Enforcement Executive Forum, 15(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.19151/LEEF.2015.1051a
- Lewinski, W. J., Hudson, W. B., & Dysterheft, J. L. (2014). Police officer reaction time to start and stop shooting: The influence of decision-making and pattern recognition. Law Enforcement Executive Forum, 14(2), 1–16.
- Lewinski, W. J., Seefeldt, D. A., Redmann, C., Gonin, M., Sargent, S., Dyserheft, J., & Thiem, P. (2016). The speed of a prone subject. Law Enforcement Executive Forum, 16(1), 70–83. https://doi.org/10.19151/LEEF.2016.1601f
- Lum, C. K., Christopher, S., Gill, C., Hibdon, J., Telep, C., & Robinson, L. (2016). An evidence-assessment of the recommendations of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing – Implementation and research priorities. Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy, George Mason University. www.cebcp.org
- Martaindale, M. H. (2021). Improving the accuracy of firearm identification in a dynamic use of force scenario. Police Quarterly, 24(1), 104–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611120944387
- Martinelli, R. (2014, September 18). Revisiting the “21-foot rule”. Police: The Law Enforcement Magazine. http://www.policemag.com/channel/weapons/articles/2014/09/revisiting-the-21-foot-rule.aspx
- Morrison, G. B. (2006). Police department and instructor perspectives on pre‐service firearm and deadly force training. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 29(2), 226–245. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510610667646
- O’Neill, J., O’Neill, D. A., Weed, K., Hartman, M. E., Spence, W., & Lewinski, W. J. (2019). Police academy training, performance, and learning. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 12(2), 353–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-018-00317-2
- O’Neill, D. A., Spence, W. R., Lewinski, W. J., & Novak, E. J. (2019). Training and safety: Potentially lethal blue-on-blue encounters. Police Practice and Research, 22(2), 1209–1228. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2019.1617143
- Police Executive Research Forum. (2016). Guiding principles on use of force. https://www.policeforum.org/assets/30%20guiding%20principles.pdf
- Remsberg, C. (1986). The tactical edge: Surviving high-risk patrol. Calibre Press.
- San Diego Community College District Police Department (SDCCDPD). (2019). April.1 Stop/detention & pat-down procedures. [Eff. 10/01/19]. https://www.sdccd.edu/docs/Police/Police_Policies_Procedures/4.01.STOP-DETENTION.PAT-DOWN.PROCEDURES.pdf
- San Diego Police Department (SDPD). (2014). Curb-sitting as a control technique/defensive tactic. [TB 14-03]. https://voiceofsandiego.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/TB-14-03-curb-sitting-as-a-control-technique-and-defensive-tactic-.pdf
- Sandel, W. L., Martaindale, M. H., & Blair, J. P. (2021). A scientific examination of the 21-foot rule. Police Practice and Research, 22(3), 1314–1329. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2020.1772785
- Schraer, M. (2012, January 13). How to create a real position of advantage in close-quarters assaults. https://www.police1.com/officer-safety/articles/how-to-create-a-real-position-of-advantage-in-close-quarter-assaults-GHWVXgtSUbZF4TEY/
- Sherman, L. (1998). Evidence-based policing. Police Foundation. https://www.policefoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Sherman-1998-Evidence-Based-Policing.pdf
- Taylor, P. L. (2019). Beyond false positives. Criminology & Public Policy, 18(4), 807–822. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12460
- Taylor, P. L., Sipe, P., & Bartel, L. (2021). Lost in transition: The effects of transitioning between firearms and electronic control devices (ECDs) on perception-response times (PRTs). The Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032258X211044135
- Thomas, M. D. (2015). Time costs associated with changing from lower to higher retention level holsters. Journal of Law Enforcement, 4(4), 2–10. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mark-Thomas-22/publication/275211898_Time_costs_associated_with_changing_from_lower_to_higher_retention_level_holsters/links/55352df70cf20ea35f106a8d/Time-costs-associated-with-changing-from-lower-to-higher-retention-level-holsters.pdf.
- Tueller, D. (1983). How close is too close?. S.W.A.T Magazine. http://www.theppsc.org/Staff_Views/Tueller/How.Close.htm
- United States Department of Justice. (2019a). Table 82: Law enforcement officers assaulted, time of incident by number of assaults and percent distribution 2010-2019. https://ucr.fbi.gov/leoka/2019/topic-pages/tables/table-82.xls
- United States Department of Justice. (2019b). Table 85: Law enforcement officers assaulted, type of weapon and percent injured 2010-2019. https://ucr.fbi.gov/leoka/2019/topic-pages/tables/table-85.xls
- United States Department of Justice. (2019c). Table 2: Law enforcement officers feloniously killed, population group/agency type 2010-209. https://ucr.fbi.gov/leoka/2019/topic-pages/tables/table-2.xls
- United States Department of Justice. (2019d). Table 121: Law enforcement officers assaulted and injured with firearms, knives, or other cutting instruments, Officer assaulted and injured with firearm, type of firearm by distance between officer and offender, 2010-2019. https://ucr.fbi.gov/leoka/2019/topic-pages/tables/table-121.xls
- VirTra. (2018, December 19). 21-foot principle clarified by Dennis Tueller and Ken Wallentine [video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dEjxg1m3ORU
- Williams, V. City of Lancaster, CIVIL ACTION NO. 18-2773. E. D. Pa 2020 Jan. 10).