‘We handle it, I guess you’d say, the East Texas way’: Place-based effects on the police decision-making process and non-arrest outcomes

References

• Allen, T. (2005). Taking a juvenile into custody: Situational factors that influence police officers’ decisions. The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 32(2), 121–129. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/jssw/vol32/iss2/8
   Google Scholar
• Almanac, T. (n.d.1b.) Presidential elections, 1960-2016. https://texasalmanac.com/topics/elections/presidential-elections-1960-%E2%80%93-2016
   Google Scholar
• Alpert, G. P., Dunham, R. G., Stroshine, M., Bennett, K., & MacDonald, J. (2006). Policeofficers’ decision making and discretion: Forming suspicion and making a stop. Report No. 213004 to the National Institute of Justice. National Institute of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Aspers, P., & Corte, U. (2019). What is qualitative in qualitative research? Qualitative Sociology, 42(2), 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-019-9413-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell, J. (2017). The symbolic assailant revisited. Indiana Legal Studies, Research Paper No. 371. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2955845
   Google Scholar
• Berman, R. (2018, April 26). Dominant religions in the U.S., county by county. Big Think Edge. https://bigthink.com/robby-berman/dominant-religions-in-the-us-county-by-county
   Google Scholar
• Bernard, T. J. (1992). The cycle of juvenile justice. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Black, D., & Reiss, A. (1970). Police control of juveniles. American Sociological Review, 35(1), 63–77. https://doi.org/10.2307/2093853
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, R. A., Novak, K. J., & Frank, J. (2009). Identifying variation in police officer behavior between juveniles and adults. Journal of Criminal Justice, 37(1), 200–208. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.02.004.
   Google Scholar
• Bynum, T. S., Cordner, G. W., & Greene, J. R. (1982). Victim and offense characteristics:Impact on police investigative decision-making. Criminology, 20(3–4), 301–318. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1982.tb00463.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capsambelis, C. (2009). Policing in rural America: A handbook for the rural law enforcement officer. Carolina Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Carrington, P. J., & Schulenberg, J. L. (2003). Police discretion with young offenders. Report to the department of justice Canada. Department of Justice Canada. https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/cj-jp/yj-jj/discre/pdf/rep-rap.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Cebulak, W. (2004). Why rural crime and justice really matter. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 19(1), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02802576
   Google Scholar
• Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative analysis. SAGE Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Christensen, W., & Crank, J. P. (2001). Police work and culture in a non-urban setting: An ethnographic analysis. Police Quarterly, 4(1), 69–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/109861101129197752
   Google Scholar
• Cox, S., Allen, J., Hanser, R., & Conrad, J. (2017). Juvenile justice: A guide to theory, policy, and practice (9th ed.). Sage Publications Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Crank, J. P. (2003). Celebrating agency culture: Engaging a traditional cop’s heart in organizational change. In Q. C. Thurman & E. F. McGarrell (Eds.), Community policing in a rural setting (2 nd ed., pp. 61–70). Anderson Publishing Co.
   Google Scholar
• Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. SAGE Publications, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Decker, S. (1979). The rural county sheriff: An issue of social control. Criminal Justice Review, 4(2), 97–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/073401687900400210
   Google Scholar
• Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive interactionism. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Development Services Group, Inc. (2018). Interactions between youth and law enforcement. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Literature review https://www.ojjdp.gov/mpg/litreviews/Interactions-Youth-Law-Enforcement.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Donnermeyer, J. F., & DeKeseredy, W. S. (2014). Rural criminology: New directions in critical criminology. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Douglas, K., Theodori, G., Hudec, C., & Beach, S. (2014). The 2013 texas rural survey: Respondents’ demographic profile. Center for Rural Studies, Sam Houston State University. https://www.shsu.edu/centers/rural-studies/Publications/-TRS%202013%20Demographic%20Profile%20Report.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Dwyer, A., Ball, M., & Barker, E. (2015). Policing LGBTIQ people in rural spaces: Emerging issues and future concerns. Rural Society, 24(3), 227–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/10371656.2015.1099264
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eason, J. M., Smith, A. L., Greenberg, J., Abel, R. D., & Sparks, C. (2017). Crime, punishment, and spatial inequality. In A. R. Tickamyer, J. Sherman, & J. Warlick (Eds.), Rural poverty in the United States (pp. 349–385). Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Engel, R. S., Smith, M. R., & Cullen, F. T. (2012). Race, place, and drug enforcement:Reconsidering the impact of citizen complaints and crime rates on drug arrests. Criminology & Public Policy, 11(4), 603–635. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2012.00837.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esterberg, K. (2002). Qualitative methods in social research. McGraw Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Fenwick, T. (2015). Learning policing in rural spaces: ‘Covering 12 foot rooms with 8 foot carpets’. Policing: A Journal of Policy & Practice, 9(3), 234–241. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/pav015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank, J., & Liederbach, J. (2003). The work routines and citizen interactions of small-town and rural police officers. In Q. C. Thurman & E. F. McGarrell (Eds.), Community policing in a rural setting (2 nd ed., pp. 49–60). Anderson Publishing Co.
   Google Scholar
• Fusch, P. I., & Ness, L. R. (2015). Are we there yet? Data saturation in qualitative research. The Qualitative Report, 20(9), 1408–1416. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2015.2281
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative. research. Sociology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Grammich, C., Hadaway, K., Houseal, R., Jones, D. E., Krindatch, A., Stanley, R., & Taylor, R. H. (2018). U.S. religion census religious congregations and membership study, 2010 (county file). Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA). [Data set]. https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/QUN29 http://www.thearda.com/Archive/Files/Downloads/RCMSCY10_DL2.asp.
   Google Scholar
• Greenwood, P., & Turner, S. (2011). Juvenile crime and juvenile justice. In J. Wilson & J. Petersilia (Eds.), Crime and public policy (pp. 88–129). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hanson, J. A., & Lory, G. L. (2020). Rural victimization and policing during the COVID-19 pandemic. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45(4), 731–742. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09554-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hennink, M., & Kaiser, B. N. (2022). Sample sizes for saturation in qualitative research: A systematic review of empirical tests. Social Science & Medicine, 292, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114523
   Google Scholar
• Holloway, I. (1997). Basic concepts for qualitative research. Blackwell Science.
   Google Scholar
• Huff, J. (2021). Understanding police decisions to arrest: The impact of situational, officer, and neighborhood characteristics on police discretion. Journal of Criminal Justice, 75, 101829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2021.101829
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, E. H. (2010). Handbook of Texas online: East Texas. Texas State Historical Association. https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/rye01
   Google Scholar
• Klinger, D. A. (1997). Negotiating order in patrol work: An ecological theory of police response to deviance. Criminology, 35(2), 277–306. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1997.tb00877.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kratcoski, P. C., Kratcoski, L. D., & Kratcoski, P. C. (2019). The police role in delinquency. In Juvenile delinquency: Theory, research, and the juvenile justice process. 6 th ed., pp. 245–266. Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Liederbach, J. (2007). Controlling suburban and small-town hoods: An examination of police encounters with juveniles. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5(2), 107–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204006295151
   Google Scholar
• Lipsky, M. (1980). Street-level bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the individual in public services. Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Lundman, R. J., Sykes, R. E., & Clark, J. P. (1978). Police control of juveniles: A replication. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 15(1), 74–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/002242787801500107
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mastrofski, S. D. (2004). Controlling street-level police discretion. The annals of the American. Academy of Political and Social Science, 593(1), 100–118. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716203262584
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mastrofski, S., Richard, R., & Hofffmaster, D. (1987). Organizational determinants of police discretion: The case of drinking and driving. Journal of Criminal Justice, 15(5), 387–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2352(87)90061-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maynard-Moody, S., & Musheno, M. (2003). Cops, teachers, counselors: Stories from the front lines of public service. University of Michigan Press.
   Google Scholar
• McCleary, R. (1992). Dangerous men: The sociology of parole. Harrow andHeston.
   Google Scholar
• Miranda, D. (2021). Body-worn cameras “on the move”: Exploring the contextual, technical and ethical challenges in policing practice. Policing and Society: An International Journal of Research and Policy, 32(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2021.1879074
   Google Scholar
• Morash, M. (1984). Establishment of a juvenile police record: The influence of individual and peer group characteristics. Criminology, 22(1), 97–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1984.tb00290.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myers, S. (2004). Police encounters with juvenile suspects: Explaining the use of authority and provision of support. Retrieved from ProQuest Criminal Justice Database (Order No. 3063964). National Institute of Justice.
   Google Scholar
• National Center for Juvenile Justice. (2018). 5 ways law enforcement agencies can use juvenile. ( data.). https://www.ojjdp.gov/pubs/252070.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• National Institute of Justice. (2004). Law enforcement technology–are small and rural agencies equipped and trained? U.S. Dept. of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
   Google Scholar
• National Police Foundation. (2020). Conversations with rural law enforcement leaders: Volume 1. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. https://cops.usdoj.gov/RIC/Publications/cops-w0892-pub.pdf
   Google Scholar
• National Public Radio (NPR). (2016). Texas presidential results. https://www.npr.org/2016/11/08/501067319/texas-2016-presidential-and-state-election-results
   Google Scholar
• Nisbett, R. E., & Miyamoto, Y. (2005). The influence of culture: Holistic versus analytic perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(10), 467–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2005.08.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Novak, K. J., Frank, J., Smith, B. W., & Engel, R. S. (2002). Revisiting the decision to arrest:Comparing beat and community officers. Crime and Delinquency, 48(1), 70–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128702048001003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2016). Statistical briefing book. UnitedStates Department of Justice. https://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/
   Google Scholar
• Parker, A. L., & Sarre, R. (2008). Policing young offenders: What role discretion? International Journal of Police Science and Management, 10(4), 474–485. h ttps://d oi.o rg/10.1350%2Fijps.2008.10.4.100
   Google Scholar
• Piliavin, I. M., & Briar, S. (1964). Police encounters with juveniles. American Journal of Sociology, 70(2), 206–214. https://doi.org/10.1086/223794
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ponterotto, J. G. (2006). Brief note of the origins, evolution, and meaning of the qualitative research concept thick description. The Qualitative Report, 11(3), 538–549. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2006.1666
   Google Scholar
• Pope, C. E., & Snyder, H. E. (2003). Race as a factor in juvenile arrests. OJJDP juvenile justice Bulletin. United States Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. http://www.d.umn.edu/~jmaahs/Delinquency%20and%20Juvenile%20Justice/race%20juvenile%20arrest_ojjdp.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Ratcliffe, M., Burd, C., Holder, K., & Fields, A. (2016). Defining rural at the U.S. census bureau: American community survey and geography brief (ACSGEO-1). United States Census Bureau. https://www2.census.gov/geo/pdfs/reference/ua/Defining_Rural.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Riksheim, E. C., & Chermak, S. M. (1993). Causes of police behavior revisited. Journal of Criminal Justice, 21(4), 353–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2352(93)90019-J
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salamon, S. (1997). Culture. In G. A. Goreham (Ed.), Encyclopedia of rural America: The land and people, volume I (pp. 169–172). ABC-CLIO.
   Google Scholar
• Saunders, B., Sim, J., Kingstone, T., Baker, S., Waterfield, J., Bartlam, B., Burroughs, H., & Jinks, C. (2018). Saturation in qualitative research: Exploring its conceptualization and operationalization. Quality & Quantity, 52(4), 1893–1907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0574-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulenberg, J. (2010). Patterns in police decision-making with youth: An application of black’s theory of law. Crime, Law, and Social Change, 53(2), 109–129. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-009-9210-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sealock, M. D., & Simpson, S. S. (1998). Unraveling bias in arrest decisions: The role of juvenile offender type-scripts. Justice Quarterly, 15(3), 427–457. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418829800093831
   Google Scholar
• Sherman, L. W. (1980). Causes of police behavior: The current state of quantitative research. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 17(1), 69–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/002242788001700106
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shukla, R. K., Stoneberg, D., Lockwood, K., Copple, P., Dorman, A., & Jones, F. M. (2019). The interaction of crime & place: An exploratory study of crime & policing in non-metropolitan areas. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 21(3), 200–214. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41300-019-00072-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sickmund, M., & Puzzanchera, C. (eds.). (2014). Juvenile offenders and victims: 2014 national report. National Center for Juvenile Justice.https://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/nr2014/downloads/NR2014.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Skaggs, S. L. (2019). Understanding arrest in rural police-juvenile interactions: A factorial designed survey approach. Policing & Society, 29(7), 802–819. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2017.1417408
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skaggs, S. L., & Sun, I. Y. (2017). Policing juveniles in rural communities: Determinants of officer authoritative and supportive behavior. Policing: An International Journal, 40(2), 244–264. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-03-2016-0030
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skolnick, J. H. (2008). Enduring issues of police culture and demographics. Policing & Society, 18(1), 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439460701718542
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Texas Commission on Law Enforcement (TCOLE). (2021). Current Statistics. https://www.tcole.texas.gov/content/current-statistics
   Google Scholar
• Texas State Historical Association (TSHA). (2018). Physical regions of Texas. Texas Almanac. https://texasalmanac.com/topics/environment/physical-regions-texas
   Google Scholar
• Texas State Historical Association (TSHA). (n.d). Presidential elections, 1960-2016. Texas Almanac. https://texasalmanac.com/topics/elections/presidential-elections-1960-%E2%80%93-2016.
   Google Scholar
• Thurau, L. H. (2009). Rethinking how we police youth: Incorporating knowledge of adolescence into policing teens. Children’s Legal Rights Journal, 29(3), 30–48. https://strategiesforyouth.org/sfysite/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Rethinking-How-We-Police-Youth-Incorporating-Knowledge-of-Adolescense-Into-Policing-Teens.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Thurman, Q. C., & McGarrell, E. F. (2003). Community policing in a rural setting (2nd ed.). Anderson Publishing Co.
   Google Scholar
• United States Census Bureau. (2010). 2010 Census Urban Lists Record Layouts. https://www.census.gov/geo/reference/ua/ualists_layout.html
   Google Scholar
• United States Census Bureau. (2016a). Rural America: How does the Census Bureau define rural? [Interactive map explaining and illustrating rural America data]. https://storymaps.geo.census.gov/arcgis/apps/MapSeries/index.html?appid=9e459da9327b4c7e9a1248cb65ad942a
   Google Scholar
• United States Census Bureau, American Community Survey. (2019). [ 5-Year Estimates SubjectTables]
   Google Scholar
• United States Census Bureau, American Factfinder. (2020). https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/index.xhtml
   Google Scholar
• United States Census Bureau, Population Division. (2018). [Table generated by jessica peterson via American factfinder]. Annual Estimates of the Resident Population: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2017. https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk
   Google Scholar
• Websdale, N. (1998). Rural women battering and the justice system: An ethnography. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Weisheit, R. A., & Donnermeyer, J. F. (2000). Change and continuity in crime in rural America. Criminal Justice - the Nature of Crime: Continuity and Change, 1, 309–357. https://www.ncjrs.gov/criminal_justice2000/vol_1/02g.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Weisheit, R. A., Falcone, D. N., & Wells, L. E. (1994, September). Rural crime and rural policing [Report] U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. https://nij.ojp.gov/library/publications/rural-crime-and-rural-policing
   Google Scholar
• Weisheit, R. A., Falcone, D., & Wells, L. (2006). Crime and policing in rural and small-town America (3rd ed.). Waveland Press, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Willis, J. J., & Mastrofski, S. D. (2016). Improving policing by integrating craft and science:What can patrol officers teach us about good police work? Policing and Society, 28(1), 27–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2015.1135921
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson James, Q. (1968). Varieties of police behavior. Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wolf, K. C. (2014). Arrest decision making by school resource officers. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 12(2), 137–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541204013491294
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Worden Robert, E. (1995). Police officers’ belief systems: A framework for analysis. American Journal of Police, XIV(1), 49–81. https://doi.org/10.1108/07358549510152979
   Google Scholar
• Worden, R. E., & Myers, S. M. (1999). Police encounters with juvenile suspects. [Technical report 205124 to the National Institute of Justice]. Hindelang Criminal Justice Research Center & School of Criminal Justice University at Albany, SUNY.
   Google Scholar