10,509
Views
3
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Articles

World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines update 2023 on the pharmacological treatment of eating disorders

ORCID Icon, , , , ORCID Icon, , , ORCID Icon, , ORCID Icon, , & show all, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , & show all
Pages 643-706 | Received 08 Feb 2023, Accepted 08 Feb 2023, Published online: 24 Apr 2023

References

  • Agras WS, Dorian B, Kirkley BG, Arnow B, Bachman J. 1987. Imipramine in the treatment of bulimia: a double-blind controlled study. Int J Eat Disord. 6(1):29–38.
  • Agras WS, Rossiter EM, Arnow B, Schneider JA, Telch CF, Raeburn SD, Bruce B, Perl M, Koran LM. 1992. Pharmacologic and cognitive-behavioral treatment for bulimia nervosa: a controlled comparison. Am J Psychiatry. 149(1):82–87.
  • Agras WS, Rossiter EM, Arnow B, Telch CF, Raeburn SD, Bruce B, Koran LM. 1994. One-year follow-up of psychosocial and pharmacologic treatments for bulimia nervosa. J Clin Psychiatry. 55(5):179–183.
  • Ahmed MH. 2010. Orlistat and calcium oxalate crystalluria: an association that needs consideration. Ren Fail. 32(8):1019–1021.
  • Ahn J, Lee JH, Jung YC. 2019. Predictors of suicide attempts in individuals with eating disorders. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 49(3):789–797.
  • Aigner M, Treasure J, Kaye W, Kasper S. 2011. World federation of societies of biological psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of eating disorders. World J Biol Psychiatry. 12(6):400–443.
  • Alger SA, Schwalberg MD, Bigaouette JM, Michalek AV, Howard LJ. 1991. Effect of a tricyclic antidepressant and opiate antagonist on binge-eating behavior in normoweight bulimic and obese, binge-eating subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 53(4):865–871.
  • Altamura AC, Moro AR, Percudani M. 1994. Clinical pharmacokinetics of fluoxetine. Clin Pharmacokinet. 26(3):201–214.
  • American Psychiatric Association. 2012. Guideline watch: practice guideline for the treatment of patients with eating disorders. 3. American Psychiatric Association; [accessed].
  • American Psychiatric Association. 2013. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. Washington (DC): APA Publishing.
  • American Psychiatric Association. 2022. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th (text rev.) ed. Washington (DC): APA Publishing.
  • Andries A, Frystyk J, Flyvbjerg A, Støving RK. 2014. Dronabinol in severe, enduring anorexia nervosa: a randomized controlled trial. Int J Eat Disord. 47(1):18–23.
  • Andries A, Gram B, Støving RK. 2015. Effect of dronabinol therapy on physical activity in anorexia nervosa: a randomised, controlled trial. Eat Weight Disord. 20(1):13–21.
  • Antel J, Tan S, Grabler M, Ludwig C, Lohkemper D, Brandenburg T, Barth N, Hinney A, Libuda L, Remy M, et al. 2022. Rapid amelioration of anorexia nervosa in a male adolescent during metreleptin treatment including recovery from hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 31(10):1573–1579.
  • Appolinario JC, Bacaltchuk J, Sichieri R, Claudino AM, Godoy-Matos A, Morgan C, Zanella MT, Coutinho W. 2003. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of sibutramine in the treatment of binge-eating disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 60(11):1109–1116.
  • Appolinario JC, Fontenelle LF, Papelbaum M, Bueno JR, Coutinho W. 2002. Topiramate use in obese patients with binge eating disorder: an open study. Can J Psychiatry. 47(3):271–273.
  • Arnold LM, McElroy SL, Hudson JI, Welge JA, Bennett AJ, Keck PE. 2002. A placebo-controlled, randomized trial of fluoxetine in the treatment of binge-eating disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 63(11):1028–1033.
  • Attia E, Haiman C, Walsh BT, Flater SR. 1998. Does fluoxetine augment the inpatient treatment of anorexia nervosa? AJP. 155(4):548–551.
  • Attia E, Kaplan AS, Walsh BT, Gershkovich M, Yilmaz Z, Musante D, Wang Y. 2011. Olanzapine versus placebo for out-patients with anorexia nervosa. Psychol Med. 41(10):2177–2182.
  • Attia E, Steinglass JE, Walsh BT, Wang Y, Wu P, Schreyer C, Wildes J, Yilmaz Z, Guarda AS, Kaplan AS, et al. 2019. Olanzapine versus placebo in adult outpatients with anorexia nervosa: a randomized clinical trial. Am J Psychiatry. 176(6):449–456.
  • Ayyıldız H, Turan Ş, Gülcü D, Poyraz CA, Pehlivanoğlu E, Çullu F, Arıkan MK. 2016. Olanzapine-induced atypical neuroleptic malignant syndrome in an adolescent man with anorexia nervosa. Eat Weight Disord. 21(2):309–311.
  • Azad MAK, Sarker M, Wan D. 2018. Immunomodulatory effects of probiotics on cytokine profiles. Biomed Res Int. 2018:8063647.
  • Bacaltchuk J, Hay P. 2003. Antidepressants versus placebo for people with bulimia nervosa. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003(4):CD003391.
  • Barlow J, Blouin J, Blouin A, Perez E. 1988. Treatment of bulimia with desipramine: a double-blind crossover study. Can J Psychiatry. 33(2):129–133.
  • Bauer C, Fischer A, Keller U. 2006. Effect of sibutramine and of cognitive-behavioural weight loss therapy in obesity and subclinical binge eating disorder. Diabetes Obes Metab. 8(3):289–295.
  • Bertilsson L, Dahl ML, Dalén P, Al-Shurbaji A. 2002. Molecular genetics of CYP2D6: clinical relevance with focus on psychotropic drugs. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 53(2):111–122.
  • Bhatia MS, Gupta R. 2009. Pica responding to SSRI: an OCD spectrum disorder? World J Biol Psychiatry. 10(4 Pt 3):936–938.
  • Biederman J, Herzog DB, Rivinus TM, Harper GP, Ferber RA, Rozenbaum JF, Harmatz JS, Tondorf R, Orsulak PJ, Js J. 1985. Amitriptyline in the treatment of anorexia nervosa: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 5(1):10–16.
  • Birmingham CL, Goldner EM, Bakan R. 1994. Controlled trial of zinc supplementation in anorexia nervosa. Intl J Eating Disorders. 15(3):251–255.
  • Bissada H, Tasca GA, Barber AM, Bradwejn J. 2008. Olanzapine in the treatment of low body weight and obsessive thinking in women with anorexia nervosa: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry. 165(10):1281–1288.
  • Black N, Varaganum M, Hutchings A. 2014. Relationship between patient reported experience (PREMs) and patient reported outcomes (PROMs) in elective surgery. BMJ Qual Saf. 23(7):534–542.
  • Blanchet C, Guillaume S, Bat-Pitault F, Carles M-E, Clarke J, Dodin V, Duriez P, Gerardin P, Hanachi-Guidoum M, Iceta S, et al. 2019. Medication in an: a multidisciplinary overview of Meta-Analyses and systematic reviews. JCM. 8(2):278.
  • Blouin AG, Blouin JH, Perez EL, Bushnik T, Zuro C, Mulder E. 1988. Treatment of bulimia with fenfluramine and desipramine. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 8(4):261–269.
  • Brambilla F, Draisci A, Peirone A, Brunetta M. 1995. Combined cognitive-behavioral, psychopharmacological and nutritional therapy in bulimia nervosa. Neuropsychobiology. 32(2):68–71.
  • Brambilla F, Monteleone P, Maj M. 2007. Olanzapine-induced weight gain in anorexia nervosa: involvement of leptin and ghrelin secretion? Psychoneuroendocrinology. 32(4):402–406.
  • Brewerton TD, D'Agostino M. 2017. Adjunctive use of olanzapine in the treatment of avoidant restrictive food intake disorder in children and adolescents in an eating disorders program. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 27(10):920–922.
  • Broft AI, Spanos A, Corwin RL, Mayer L, Steinglass J, Devlin MJ, Attia E, Walsh BT. 2007. Baclofen for binge eating: an open-label trial. Int J Eat Disord. 40(8):687–691.
  • Bulik CM, Coleman JRI, Hardaway JA, Breithaupt L, Watson HJ, Bryant CD, Breen G. 2022. Genetics and neurobiology of eating disorders. Nat Neurosci. 25(5):543–554.
  • Carruba MO, Cuzzolaro M, Riva L, Bosello O, Liberti S, Castra R, D, Grave R, Santonastaso P, Garosi V, Nisoli E. 2001. Efficacy and tolerability of moclobemide in bulimia nervosa: a placebo-controlled trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 16(1):27–32.
  • Casper RC, Schlemmer RF Jr., Javaid JI. 1987. A placebo-controlled crossover study of oral clonidine in acute anorexia nervosa. Psychiatry Res. 20(3):249–260.
  • Cassano GB, Miniati M, Pini S, Rotondo A, Banti S, Borri C, Camilleri V, Mauri M. 2003. Six month open trial of haloperidol as an adjunctive treatment for anorexia nervosa a preliminary report. Int J Eat Disord. 33(2):172–177.
  • Catone G, Pisano S, Muzzo G, Corrado G, Russo K, Maiorano A, Salerno F, Gritti A. 2020. A glance into psychiatric comorbidity in adolescents with anorexia nervosa. Minerva Pediatr. 72(6):501–507.
  • Chanoine JP, Hampl S, Jensen C, Boldrin M, Hauptman J. 2005. Effect of orlistat on weight and body composition in obese adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 293(23):2873–2883.
  • Choure J, Quinn K, Franco K. 2006. Baking-soda pica in an adolescent patient. Psychosomatics. 47(6):531–532.
  • Christensen RC, Averbuch RN. 2009. The use of duloxetine in chronic bulimia nervosa: a case report. Psychiatry. 6(8):27–28.
  • Claudino AM, de Oliveira IR, Appolinario JC, Cordás TA, Duchesne M, Sichieri R, Bacaltchuk J. 2007. Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of topiramate plus cognitive-behavior therapy in binge-eating disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 68(9):1324–1332.
  • Connolly HM, Crary JL, McGoon MD, Hensrud DD, Edwards BS, Edwards WD, Schaff HV. 1997. Valvular heart disease associated with fenfluramine-phentermine. N Engl J Med. 337(9):581–588.
  • Cordás TA, Tavares H, Calderoni DM, Stump GV, Ribeiro RB. 2006. Oxcarbazepine for self-mutilating bulimic patients. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 9(6):769–771.
  • Corwin RL, Boan J, Peters KF, Ulbrecht JS. 2012. Baclofen reduces binge eating in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Behav Pharmacol. 23(5–6):616–625.
  • Crisp AH, Lacey JH, Crutchfield M. 1987. Clomipramine and ‘drive’ in people with anorexia nervosa: an in-patient study. Br J Psychiatry. 150(3):355–358.
  • Dagan Y, Yager J. 2018. Severe bupropion XR abuse in a patient with long-standing bulimia nervosa and complex PTSD. Int J Eat Disord. 51(10):1207–1209.
  • de Beaurepaire R, Joussaume B, Rapp A, Jaury P. 2015. Treatment of binge eating disorder with high-dose baclofen: a case series. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 35(3):357–359.
  • de Vos J, Houtzager L, Katsaragaki G, van de Berg E, Cuijpers P, Dekker J. 2014. Meta analysis on the efficacy of pharmacotherapy versus placebo on anorexia nervosa. J Eat Disord. 2(1):27.
  • de Zwaan M, Nutzinger DO, Schoenbeck G. 1992. Binge eating in overweight women. Compr Psychiatry. 33(4):256–261.
  • Dechant E, Boyle B, A Ross R. 2020. Ketamine in a patient with comorbid anorexia and MDD. J Women’s Health Dev. 3(3):373–375.
  • Devlin MJ, Goldfein JA, Petkova E, Jiang H, Raizman PS, Wolk S, Mayer L, Carino J, Bellace D, Kamenetz C, et al. 2005. Cognitive behavioral therapy and fluoxetine as adjuncts to group behavioral therapy for binge eating disorder. Obes Res. 13(6):1077–1088.
  • Devlin MJ, Goldfein JA, Petkova E, Liu L, Walsh BT. 2007. Cognitive behavioral therapy and fluoxetine for binge eating disorder: two-year follow-up. Obesity. 15(7):1702–1709.
  • Dhopatkar N, Keeler JL, Mutwalli H, Whelan K, Treasure J, Himmerich H. 2023. Gastrointestinal symptoms, gut microbiome, probiotics and prebiotics in anorexia nervosa: a review of mechanistic rationale and clinical evidence. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 147:105959.
  • Dold M, Aigner M, Klabunde M, Treasure J, Kasper S. 2015. Second-generation antipsychotic drugs in anorexia nervosa: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Psychother Psychosom. 84(2):110–116.
  • Dolman L, Thornley S, Doxtdator K, Leclerc A, Findlay S, Grant C, Breakey VR, Couturier J. 2021. Multimodal therapy for rigid, persistent avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) since infancy: a case report. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry. 26(2):451–463.
  • El-Giamal N, de Zwaan M, Bailer U, Lennkh C, Schüssler P, Strnad A, Kasper S. 2000. Reboxetine in the treatment of bulimia nervosa: a report of seven cases. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 15(6):351–356.
  • Fahy TA, Eisler I, Russell GF. 1993. A placebo-controlled trial of d-fenfluramine in bulimia nervosa. Br J Psychiatry. 162(5):597–603.
  • Faris PL, Kim SW, Meller WH, Goodale RL, Oakman SA, Hofbauer RD, Marshall AM, Daughters RS, Banerjee-Stevens D, Eckert ED, et al. 2000. Effect of decreasing afferent vagal activity with ondansetron on symptoms of bulimia nervosa: a randomised, double-blind trial. Lancet. 355(9206):792–797.
  • Fassino S, Daga GA, Boggio S, Garzaro L, Pierò A. 2004. Use of reboxetine in bulimia nervosa: a pilot study. J Psychopharmacol. 18(3):423–428.
  • Fassino S, Leombruni P, Daga GA, Brustolin A, Migliaretti G, Cavallo F, Rovera GG. 2002. Efficacy of citalopram in anorexia nervosa: a pilot study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 12(5):453–459.
  • Fassino S, Pierò A, Tomba E, Abbate-Daga G. 2009. Factors associated with dropout from treatment for eating disorders: a comprehensive literature review. BMC Psychiatry. 9(1):67.
  • Fazeli PK, Lawson EA, Faje AT, Eddy KT, Lee H, Fiedorek FT, Breggia A, Gaal IM, DeSanti R, Klibanski A. 2018. Treatment with a ghrelin agonist in outpatient women with anorrexia nervosa: a randomized clinical trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 79(1):17m11585.
  • Fazeli PK, Lawson EA, Prabhakaran R, Miller KK, Donoho DA, Clemmons DR, Herzog DB, Misra M, Klibanski A. 2010. Effects of recombinant human growth hormone in anorexia nervosa: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 95(11):4889–4897.
  • Fekih-Romdhane F, Cheour M. 2022. A rare case report of teen-onset pica in a female patient with a clinical high risk for psychosis. Early Interv Psychiatry. 16(7):808–811.
  • Ferguson CP, La Via MC, Crossan PJ, Kaye WH. 1999. Are serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors effective in underweight anorexia nervosa? Int J Eat Disord. 25(1):11–17.
  • Ferreira GM, Nazar BP, da Silva MR, Carriello MA, Freitas S, Appolinario JC. 2018. Misuse of sibutramine and bulimia nervosa: a dangerous combination. Braz J Psychiatry. 40(3):343.
  • Fichter MM, Krüger R, Rief W, Holland R, Döhne J. 1996. Fluvoxamine in prevention of relapse in bulimia nervosa: effects on eating-specific psychopathology. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 16(1):9–18.
  • Fichter MM, Leibl K, Rief W, Brunner E, Schmidt-Auberger S, Engel RR. 1991. Fluoxetine versus placebo: a double-blind study with bulimic inpatients undergoing intensive psychotherapy. Pharmacopsychiatry. 24(1):1–7.
  • Fluoxetine Bulimia Nervosa Collaborative Study Group. 1992. Fluoxetine in the treatment of bulimia nervosa. A multicenter, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Fluoxetine bulimia nervosa collaborative study group. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 49(2):139–147.
  • Foster JA, McVey Neufeld KA. 2013. Gut-brain axis: how the microbiome influences anxiety and depression. Trends Neurosci. 36(5):305–312.
  • Frank GKW. 2016. Aripiprazole, a partial dopamine agonist to improve adolescent anorexia nervosa a case series. Int J Eat Disord. 49(5):529–533.
  • Frank GKW, Shott ME, Hagman JO, Schiel MA, DeGuzman MC, Rossi B. 2017. The partial dopamine D2 receptor agonist aripiprazole is associated with weight gain in adolescent anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 50(4):447–450.
  • Galmiche M, Déchelotte P, Lambert G, Tavolacci MP. 2019. Prevalence of eating disorders over the 2000–2018 period: a systematic literature review. Am J Clin Nutr. 109(5):1402–1413.
  • Golay A, Laurent-Jaccard A, Habicht F, Gachoud JP, Chabloz M, Kammer A, Schutz Y. 2005. Effect of orlistat in obese patients with binge eating disorder. Obes Res. 13(10):1701–1708.
  • Goldberg SC, Halmi KA, Eckert ED, Casper RC, Davis JM. 1979. Cyproheptadine in anorexia nervosa. Br J Psychiatry. 134(1):67–70.
  • Goldbloom DS, Olmsted M, Davis R, Clewes J, Heinmaa M, Rockert W, Shaw B. 1997. A randomized controlled trial of fluoxetine and cognitive behavioral therapy for bulimia nervosa: short-term outcome. Behav Res Ther. 35(9):803–811.
  • Goldstein DJ, Wilson MG, Thompson VL, Potvin JH, Rampey AH Jr. 1995. Long-term fluoxetine treatment of bulimia nervosa. Fluoxetine bulimia nervosa research group. Br J Psychiatry. 166(5):660–666.
  • Gradl-Dietsch G, Milos G, Wabitsch M, Bell R, Tschöpe F, Antel J, Hebebrand J. 2023. Rapid emergence of appetite and hunger resulting in weight gain and improvement of eating disorder symptomatology during and after short-term off-label metreleptin treatment of a patient with anorexia nervosa. Obes Facts. 16(1):99–107.
  • Graham DJ, Green L. 1997. Further cases of valvular heart disease associated with fenfluramine-phentermine. N Engl J Med. 337(9):635.
  • Grant JE, Valle S, Cavic E, Redden SA, Chamberlain SR. 2019. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of vortioxetine in the treatment of binge-eating disorder. Int J Eat Disord. 52(7):786–794.
  • Gray E, Chen T, Menzel J, Schwartz T, Kaye WH. 2018. Mirtazapine and weight gain in avoidant and restrictive food intake disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 57(4):288–289.
  • Green M, Arora K, Prakash S. 2020. Microbial medicine: prebiotic and probiotic functional foods to target obesity and metabolic syndrome. Int J Mol Sci. 21(8):2890.
  • Grilo CM, Crosby RD, Wilson GT, Masheb RM. 2012. 12-Month follow-up of fluoxetine and cognitive behavioral therapy for binge eating disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol. 80(6):1108–1113.
  • Grilo CM, Lydecker JA, Morgan PT, Gueorguieva R. 2021. Naltrexone + bupropion combination for the treatment of binge-eating disorder with obesity: a randomized, controlled pilot study. Clin Ther. 43(1):112–122.e111.
  • Grilo CM, Masheb RM, Crosby RD. 2012. Predictors and moderators of response to cognitive behavioral therapy and medication for the treatment of binge eating disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol. 80(5):897–906.
  • Grilo CM, Masheb RM, Salant SL. 2005. Cognitive behavioral therapy guided self-help and orlistat for the treatment of binge eating disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Biol Psychiatry. 57(10):1193–1201.
  • Grilo CM, Masheb RM, White MA, Gueorguieva R, Barnes RD, Walsh BT, McKenzie KC, Genao I, Garcia R. 2014. Treatment of binge eating disorder in racially and ethnically diverse obese patients in primary care: randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of self-help and medication. Behav Res Ther. 58:1–9.
  • Grilo CM, Masheb RM, Wilson GT. 2005. Efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy and fluoxetine for the treatment of binge eating disorder: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled comparison. Biol Psychiatry. 57(3):301–309.
  • Grilo CM, Masheb RM, Wilson GT. 2006. Rapid response to treatment for binge eating disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol. 74(3):602–613.
  • Grilo CM, McElroy SL, Hudson JI, Tsai J, Navia B, Goldman R, Deng L, Kent J, Loebel A. 2021. Efficacy and safety of dasotraline in adults with binge-eating disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled, fixed-dose clinical trial. CNS Spectr. 26(5):481–490.
  • Grilo CM, White MA. 2013. Orlistat with behavioral weight loss for obesity with versus without binge eating disorder: randomized placebo-controlled trial at a community mental health center serving educationally and economically disadvantaged Latino/as. Behav Res Ther. 51(3):167–175.
  • Grilo CM, White MA, Masheb RM, Gueorguieva R. 2015. Predicting meaningful outcomes to medication and self-help treatments for binge-eating disorder in primary care: the significance of early rapid response. J Consult Clin Psychol. 83(2):387–394.
  • Gross HA, Ebert MH, Faden VB, Goldberg SC, Kaye WH, Caine ED, Hawks R, Zinberg N. 1983. A double-blind trial of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in primary anorexia nervosa. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 3(3):165–171.
  • Gross HA, Ebert MH, Faden VB, Goldberg SC, Nee LE, Kaye WH. 1981. A double-blind controlled trial of lithium carbonate primary anorexia nervosa. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1(6):376–381.
  • Guerdjikova AI, Blom TJ, Martens BE, Keck PE Jr., McElroy SL. 2013. Zonisamide in the treatment of bulimia nervosa: an open-label, pilot, prospective study. Int J Eat Disord. 46(7):747–750.
  • Guerdjikova AI, Blom TJ, Mori N, McElroy SL. 2013. N-acetylcysteine in bulimia nervosa–open-label trial. Eat Behav. 14(1):87–89.
  • Guerdjikova AI, Kotwal R, McElroy SL. 2005. Response of recurrent binge eating and weight gain to topiramate in patients with binge eating disorder after bariatric surgery. Obes Surg. 15(2):273–277.
  • Guerdjikova AI, McElroy SL. 2013. Adjunctive methylphenidate in the treatment of bulimia nervosa co-occurring with bipolar disorder and substance dependence. Innov Clin Neurosci. 10(2):30–33.
  • Guerdjikova AI, McElroy SL, Kotwal R, Welge JA, Nelson E, Lake K, Alessio DD, Keck PE Jr., Hudson JI. 2008. High-dose escitalopram in the treatment of binge-eating disorder with obesity: a placebo-controlled monotherapy trial. Hum Psychopharmacol. 23(1):1–11.
  • Guerdjikova AI, McElroy SL, Welge JA, Nelson E, Keck PE, Hudson JI. 2009. Lamotrigine in the treatment of binge-eating disorder with obesity: a randomized, placebo-controlled monotherapy trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 24(3):150–158.
  • Guerdjikova AI, Mori N, Blom TJ, Keck PE Jr., Williams SL, Welge JA, McElroy SL. 2016. Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in binge eating disorder: a placebo controlled trial. Hum Psychopharmacol. 31(5):382–391.
  • Guerdjikova AI, Williams S, Blom TJ, Mori N, McElroy SL. 2018. Combination phentermine-topiramate extended release for the treatment of binge eating disorder: an open-label, prospective study. Innov Clin Neurosci. 15(5–6):17–21.
  • Hagman J, Gralla J, Sigel E, Ellert S, Dodge M, Gardner R, O'Lonergan T, Frank G, Wamboldt MZ. 2011. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of risperidone for the treatment of adolescents and young adults with anorexia nervosa: a pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 50(9):915–924.
  • Halmi KA, Eckert E, Ladu TJ, Cohen J. 1986. Anorexia nervosa: treatment efficacy of cyproheptadine and amitriptyline. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 43(2):177–181.
  • Hart M, Sibbritt D, Williams LT, Nunn KP, Wilcken B. 2021. Progressing our understanding of the impacts of nutrition on the brain and behaviour in anorexia nervosa: a tyrosine case study example. J Eat Disord. 9(1):86.
  • Haruta I, Asakawa A, Inui A. 2014. Olanzapine-induced hypoglycemia in anorexia nervosa. Endocrine. 46(3):672–673.
  • Haruta I, Fuku Y, Kinoshita K, Yoneda K, Morinaga A, Amitani M, Amitani H, Asakawa A, Sugawara H, Takeda Y, et al. 2015. One-year intranasal application of growth hormone releasing peptide-2 improves body weight and hypoglycemia in a severely emaciated anorexia nervosa patient. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 6(3):237–241.
  • Hasan A, Bandelow B, Yatham LN, Berk M, Falkai P, Möller HJ, Kasper S. 2019. WFSBP guidelines on how to grade treatment evidence for clinical guideline development. World J Biol Psychiatry. 20(1):2–16.
  • Hay P, Chinn D, Forbes D, Madden S, Newton R, Sugenor L, Touyz S, Ward W. 2014. Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of eating disorders. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 48(11):977–1008.
  • Hazen E, Fava M. 2006. Successful treatment with duloxetine in a case of treatment refractory bulimia nervosa: a case report. J Psychopharmacol. 20(5):723–724.
  • Hebebrand J, Milos G, Wabitsch M, Teufel M, Führer D, Bühlmeier J, Libuda L, Ludwig C, Antel J. 2019. Clinical trials required to assess potential benefits and side effects of treatment of patients with anorexia nervosa with recombinant human leptin. Front Psychol. 10:769.
  • Hedges DW, Reimherr FW, Hoopes SP, Rosenthal NR, Kamin M, Karim R, Capece JA. 2003. Treatment of bulimia nervosa with topiramate in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, part 2: improvement in psychiatric measures. J Clin Psychiatry. 64(12):1449–1454.
  • Hergüner A, Hergüner S. 2016. Pica in an adolescent with autism spectrum disorder responsive to aripiprazole. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 26(1):80–81.
  • Hergüner S, Hergüner AS. 2010. Pica in a child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and successful treatment with methylphenidate. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 34(6):1155–1156.
  • Herpertz S, Fichter M, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Hilbert A, Tuschen-Caffier B, Vocks S, Zeeck A. 2018. S3-Leitlinie diagnostik und behandlung der essstörungen. 2nd ed. Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer.
  • Hiemke C, Bergemann N, Clement HW, Conca A, Deckert J, Domschke K, Eckermann G, Egberts K, Gerlach M, Greiner C, et al. 2018. Consensus guidelines for therapeutic drug monitoring in neuropsychopharmacology: update 2017. Pharmacopsychiatry. 51(1–2):9–62.
  • Hilbert A, Petroff D, Herpertz S, Pietrowsky R, Tuschen-Caffier B, Vocks S, Schmidt R. 2019. Meta-analysis of the efficacy of psychological and medical treatments for binge-eating disorder. J Consult Clin Psychol. 87(1):91–105.
  • Hilbert A, Petroff D, Herpertz S, Pietrowsky R, Tuschen-Caffier B, Vocks S, Schmidt R. 2020. Meta-analysis on the long-term effectiveness of psychological and medical treatments for binge-eating disorder. Int J Eat Disord. 53(9):1353–1376.
  • Hill K, Bucuvalas J, McClain C, Kryscio R, Martini RT, Alfaro MP, Maloney M. 2000. Pilot study of growth hormone administration during the refeeding of malnourished anorexia nervosa patients. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 10(1):3–8.
  • Himmerich H, Kan C, Au K, Treasure J. 2021. Pharmacological treatment of eating disorders, comorbid mental health problems, malnutrition and physical health consequences. Pharmacol Ther. 217:107667.
  • Himmerich H, Treasure J. 2018. Psychopharmacological advances in eating disorders. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 11(1):95–108.
  • Hoopes SP, Reimherr FW, Hedges DW, Rosenthal NR, Kamin M, Karim R, Capece JA, Karvois D. 2003. Treatment of bulimia nervosa with topiramate in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, part 1: improvement in binge and purge measures. J Clin Psychiatry. 64(11):1335–1341.
  • Horne RL, Ferguson JM, Pope HG Jr., Hudson JI, Lineberry CG, Ascher J, Cato A. 1988. Treatment of bulimia with bupropion: a multicenter controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 49(7):262–266.
  • Hsu LK, Clement L, Santhouse R, Ju ES. 1991. Treatment of bulimia nervosa with lithium carbonate. A controlled study. J Nerv Ment Dis. 179(6):351–355.
  • Hudson JI, McElroy SL, Ferreira-Cornwell MC, Radewonuk J, Gasior M. 2017. Efficacy of lisdexamfetamine in adults with moderate to severe binge-eating disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 74(9):903–910.
  • Hudson JI, McElroy SL, Raymond NC, Crow S, Keck PE Jr., Carter WP, Mitchell JE, Strakowski SM, Pope HG Jr., Coleman BS, et al. 1998. Fluvoxamine in the treatment of binge-eating disorder: a multicenter placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Am J Psychiatry. 155(12):1756–1762.
  • Hughes PL, Wells LA, Cunningham CJ, Ilstrup DM. 1986. Treating bulimia with desipramine. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 43(2):182–186.
  • Huseman C, Pearson P, Madison J, Leuschen M. 1990. Bulimia as a form of self-addiction-treatment with naltrexone hydrochloride (trexan)—a pilot-study. Clin Trials J. 27(2):77–83.
  • Ikeda M, Shigenobu K, Fukuhara R, Hokoishi K, Maki N, Nebu A, Komori K, Tanabe H. 2004. Efficacy of fluvoxamine as a treatment for behavioral symptoms in frontotemporal lobar degeneration patients. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 17(3):117–121.
  • Jacobi C, Dahme B, Dittmann R. 2002. Cognitive-behavioural, fluoxetine and combined treatment for bulimia nervosa: short- and long-term results. Eur Eat Disorders Rev. 10(3):179–198.
  • Jonas JM, Gold MS. 1988. The use of opiate antagonists in treating bulimia: a study of low-dose versus high-dose naltrexone. Psychiatry Res. 24(2):195–199.
  • Kafantaris V, Leigh E, Hertz S, Berest A, Schebendach J, Sterling WM, Saito E, Sunday S, Higdon C, Golden NH, et al. 2011. A placebo-controlled pilot study of adjunctive olanzapine for adolescents with anorexia nervosa. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 21(3):207–212.
  • Kalaria SN, McElroy SL, Gobburu J, Gopalakrishnan M. 2020. An innovative disease-drug-trial framework to guide binge eating disorder drug development: a case study for topiramate. Clin Transl Sci. 13(1):88–97.
  • Kan C, Eid L, Treasure J, Himmerich H. 2020. A meta-analysis of dropout and metabolic effects of antipsychotics in anorexia nervosa. Front Psychiatry. 11:208.
  • Kanamori T, Kaneko Y, Yamada K, Suzuki M. 2021. Successful combination therapy of trazodone and fluvoxamine for pica in Alzheimer’s disease: a case report. Front Psychiatry. 12:704847.
  • Kaplan AS, Garfinkel PE, Darby PL, Garner DM. 1983. Carbamazepine in the treatment of bulimia. Am J Psychiatry. 140(9):1225–1226.
  • Katsambas AD, Dessinioti C. 2010. Hormonal therapy for acne: why not as first line therapy? Facts and controversies. Clin Dermatol. 28(1):17–23.
  • Katz RL, Keen CL, Litt IF, Hurley LS, Kellams-Harrison KM, Glader LJ. 1987. Zinc deficiency in anorexi nervosa. J Adolesc Health Care. 8(5):400–406.
  • Katzman DK, Norris ML, Zucker N. 2019. Avoidant restrictive food intake disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 42(1):45–57.
  • Kaye WH, Nagata T, Weltzin TE, Hsu LKG, Sokol MS, McConaha C, Plotnicov KH, Weise J, Deep D. 2001. Double-blind placebo-controlled administration of fluoxetine in restricting- and restricting-purging-type anorexia nervosa. Biol Psychiatry. 49(7):644–652.
  • Keeler JL, Treasure J, Juruena MF, Kan C, Himmerich H. 2021. Ketamine as a treatment for anorexia nervosa: a narrative review. Nutrients. 13(11):4158.
  • Kennedy SH, Goldbloom DS, Ralevski E, Davis C, D'Souza JD, Lofchy J. 1993. Is there a role for selective monoamine oxidase inhibitor therapy in bulimia nervosa? A placebo-controlled trial of brofaromine. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 13(6):415–422.
  • Kennedy SH, Piran N, Warsh JJ, Prendergast P, Mainprize E, Whynot C, Garfinkel PE. 1988. A trial of isocarboxazid in the treatment of bulimia nervosa. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 8(6):391–396.
  • Keshen AR, Dixon L, Ali SI, Helson T, Nunes A, Milliken H, Gamberg S, Sadek J, Kaplan A, McElroy SL. 2021. A feasibility study evaluating lisdexamfetamine dimesylate for the treatment of adults with bulimia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 54(5):872–878.
  • Kim YR, Eom JS, Leppanen J, Leslie M, Treasure J. 2018. Effects of intranasal oxytocin on the attentional bias to emotional stimuli in patients with bulimia nervosa. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 91:75–78.
  • Kim YR, Eom JS, Yang JW, Kang J, Treasure J. 2015. The impact of oxytocin on food intake and emotion recognition in patients with eating disorders: a double blind single dose within-subject cross-over design. PLOS One. 10(9):e0137514.
  • Kimball A, Schorr M, Meenaghan E, Bachmann KN, Eddy KT, Misra M, Lawson EA, Kreiger-Benson E, Herzog DB, Koman S, et al. 2019. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of low-dose testosterone therapy in women with anorexia nervosa. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 104(10):4347–4355.
  • Kishi T, Kafantaris V, Sunday S, Sheridan EM, Correll CU. 2012. Are antipsychotics effective for the treatment of anorexia nervosa? Results from a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 73(6):757–766.
  • Kotler LA, Devlin MJ, Davies M, Walsh BT. 2003. An open trial of fluoxetine for adolescents with bulimia nervosa. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 13(3):329–335.
  • Laederach-Hofmann K, Graf C, Horber F, Lippuner K, Lederer S, Michel R, Schneider M. 1999. Imipramine and diet counseling with psychological support in the treatment of obese binge eaters: a randomized, placebo-controlled double-blind study. Int J Eat Disord. 26(3):231–244.
  • Lebert F, Stekke W, Hasenbroekx C, Pasquier F. 2004. Frontotemporal dementia: a randomised, controlled trial with trazodone. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 17(4):355–359.
  • Lebow J, Sim LA, Erwin PJ, Murad MH. 2013. The effect of atypical antipsychotic medications in individuals with anorexia nervosa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Eat Disord. 46(4):332–339.
  • Lee H, Rhee PL, Park EH, Kim JH, Son HJ, Kim JJ, Rhee JC. 2007. Clinical outcome of rumination syndrome in adults without psychiatric illness: a prospective study. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 22(11):1741–1747.
  • Léger J, Fjellestad-Paulsen A, Bargiacchi A, Pages J, Chevenne D, Alison M, Alberti C, Guilmin-Crepon S. 2021. One year of GH treatment for growth failure in children with anorexia nervosa: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 106(7):e2535–e2546.
  • Leggero C, Masi G, Brunori E, Calderoni S, Carissimo R, Maestro S, Muratori F. 2010. Low-dose olanzapine monotherapy in girls with anorexia nervosa, restricting subtype: focus on hyperactivity. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 20(2):127–133.
  • Leombruni P, Amianto F, Delsedime N, Gramaglia C, Abbate-Daga G, Fassino S. 2006. Citalopram versus fluoxetine for the treatment of patients with bulimia nervosa: a single-blind randomized controlled trial. Adv Ther. 23(3):481–494.
  • Leombruni P, Pierò A, Brustolin A, Mondelli V, Levi M, Campisi S, Marozio S, Abbate-Daga G, Fassino S. 2006. A 12 to 24 weeks pilot study of sertraline treatment in obese women binge eaters. Hum Psychopharmacol. 21(3):181–188.
  • Leombruni P, Pierò A, Lavagnino L, Brustolin A, Campisi S, Fassino S. 2008. A randomized, double-blind trial comparing sertraline and fluoxetine 6-month treatment in obese patients with binge eating disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 32(6):1599–1605.
  • Leslie M, Leppanen J, Paloyelis Y, Nazar BP, Treasure J. 2019. The influence of oxytocin on risk-taking in the balloon analogue risk task among women with bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder. J Neuroendocrinol. 31(8):e12771.
  • Levinson CA, Rodebaugh TL, Fewell L, Kass AE, Riley EN, Stark L, McCallum K, Lenze EJ. 2015. D-cycloserine facilitation of exposure therapy improves weight regain in patients with anorexia nervosa: a pilot randomized controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 76(6):e787–e793.
  • Linardon J, Wade TD. 2018. How many individuals achieve symptom abstinence following psychological treatments for bulimia nervosa? A meta-analytic review. Int J Eat Disord. 51(4):287–294.
  • Luzier J, Rached K, Talley J. 2019. Relapse prevention and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor medication in two adolescents with anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 52(7):863–867.
  • Mahr F, Billman M, Essayli JH, Lane Loney SE. 2022. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and hydroxyzine in the treatment of avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder in children and adolescents: rationale and evidence. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 32(2):117–121. eng.
  • Malhotra S, King KH, Welge JA, Brusman-Lovins L, McElroy SL. 2002. Venlafaxine treatment of binge-eating disorder associated with obesity: a series of 35 patients. J Clin Psychiatry. 63(9):802–806.
  • Manos BE, Bravender TD, Harrison TM, Lange HLH, Cottrill CB, Abdel-Rasoul M, Bonny AE. 2018. A pilot randomized controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of anxiety in adolescents with anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 51(12):1367–1372.
  • Marcus MD, Wing RR, Ewing L, Kern E, McDermott M, Gooding W. 1990. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of fluoxetine plus behavior modification in the treatment of obese binge-eaters and non-binge-eaters. Am J Psychiatry. 147(7):876–881.
  • Marrazzi MA, Bacon JP, Kinzie, J, Luby, ED. 1995. Naltrexone use in the treatment of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 10:163–172.
  • Martínez Insfran LA, Alconchel Gago F, Parrilla Paricio P. 2019. Fulminant liver failure secondary to submassive hepatic necrosis in a patient treated with orlistat. A case report. Rev Esp Enferm Dig. 111(1):83.
  • Marzola E, Desedime N, Giovannone C, Amianto F, Fassino S, Abbate-Daga G. 2015. Atypical antipsychotics as augmentation therapy in anorexia nervosa. PLOS One. 10(4):e0125569.
  • Mauri M, Miniati M, Mariani MG, Ciberti A, Dell’Osso L. 2013. Haloperidol for severe anorexia nervosa restricting type with delusional body image disturbance: a nine-case chart review. Eat Weight Disord. 18(3):329–332.
  • McCallum RW, Grill BB, Lange R, Planky M, Glass EE, Greenfeld DG. 1985. Definition of a gastric emptying abnormality in patients with anorexia nervosa. Dig Dis Sci. 30(8):713–722.
  • McCann UD, Agras WS. 1990. Successful treatment of nonpurging bulimia nervosa with desipramine: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry. 147(11):1509–1513.
  • McDuffie JR, Calis KA, Uwaifo GI, Sebring NG, Fallon EM, Frazer TE, V, Hubbard S, Yanovski JA. 2004. Efficacy of orlistat as an adjunct to behavioral treatment in overweight African American and Caucasian adolescents with obesity-related co-morbid conditions. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 17(3):307–319.
  • McDuffie JR, Calis KA, Uwaifo GI, Sebring NG, Fallon EM, Hubbard VS, Yanovski JA. 2002. Three-month tolerability of orlistat in adolescents with obesity-related comorbid conditions. Obes Res. 10(7):642–650.
  • McElroy SL, Arnold LM, Shapira NA, Keck PE Jr., Rosenthal NR, Karim MR, Kamin M, Hudson JI. 2003. Topiramate in the treatment of binge eating disorder associated with obesity: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry. 160(2):255–261.
  • McElroy SL, Casuto LS, Nelson EB, Lake KA, Soutullo CA, Keck PE Jr., Hudson JI. 2000. Placebo-controlled trial of sertraline in the treatment of binge eating disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 157(6):1004–1006.
  • McElroy SL, Guerdjikova A, Kotwal R, Welge JA, Nelson EB, Lake KA, Keck PE Jr., Hudson JI. 2007. Atomoxetine in the treatment of binge-eating disorder: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 68(3):390–398.
  • McElroy SL, Guerdjikova AI, Mori N, Romo-Nava F. 2019. Progress in developing pharmacologic agents to treat bulimia nervosa. CNS Drugs. 33(1):31–46.
  • McElroy SL, Guerdjikova AI, Winstanley EL, O'Melia AM, Mori N, Keck PE Jr., Hudson JI. 2011. Sodium oxybate in the treatment of binge eating disorder: an open-label, prospective study. Int J Eat Disord. 44(3):262–268.
  • McElroy SL, Hudson JI, Capece JA, Beyers K, Fisher AC, Rosenthal NR. 2007. Topiramate for the treatment of binge eating disorder associated with obesity: a placebo-controlled study. Biol Psychiatry. 61(9):1039–1048.
  • McElroy SL, Hudson J, Ferreira-Cornwell MC, Radewonuk J, Whitaker T, Gasior M. 2016. Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate for adults with moderate to severe binge eating disorder: results of two pivotal phase 3 randomized controlled trials. Neuropsychopharmacology. 41(5):1251–1260.
  • McElroy SL, Hudson JI, Grilo CM, Guerdjikova AI, Deng L, Koblan KS, Goldman R, Navia B, Hopkins S, Loebel A. 2020. Efficacy and safety of dasotraline in adults with binge-eating disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled, flexible-dose clinical trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 81(5):19m13068.
  • McElroy SL, Hudson JI, Malhotra S, Welge JA, Nelson EB, Keck PE Jr. 2003. Citalopram in the treatment of binge-eating disorder: a placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 64(7):807–813.
  • McElroy SL, Hudson JI, Mitchell JE, Wilfley D, Ferreira-Cornwell MC, Gao J, Wang J, Whitaker T, Jonas J, Gasior M. 2015. Efficacy and safety of lisdexamfetamine for treatment of adults with moderate to severe binge-eating disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 72(3):235–246.
  • McElroy SL, Kotwal R, Guerdjikova AI, Welge JA, Nelson EB, Lake KA, D'Alessio DA, Keck PE, Hudson JI. 2006. Zonisamide in the treatment of binge eating disorder with obesity: a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 67(12):1897–1906.
  • McElroy SL, Kotwal R, Hudson JI, Nelson EB, Keck PE. 2004. Zonisamide in the treatment of binge-eating disorder: an open-label, prospective trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 65(1):50–56.
  • McElroy SL, Shapira NA, Arnold LM, Keck PE, Rosenthal NR, Wu SC, Capece JA, Fazzio L, Hudson JI. 2004. Topiramate in the long-term treatment of binge-eating disorder associated with obesity. J Clin Psychiatry. 65(11):1463–1469.
  • Milano W, Petrella C, Casella A, Capasso A, Carrino S, Milano L. 2005. Use of sibutramine, an inhibitor of the reuptake of serotonin and noradrenaline, in the treatment of binge eating disorder: a placebo-controlled study. Adv Ther. 22(1):25–31.
  • Milano W, Petrella C, Sabatino C, Capasso A. 2004. Treatment of bulimia nervosa with sertraline: a randomized controlled trial. Adv Ther. 21(4):232–237.
  • Mills IH, Park GR, Manara AR, Merriman RJ. 1998. Treatment of compulsive behaviour in eating disorders with intermittent ketamine infusions. QJM. 91(7):493–503.
  • Milos G, Antel J, Kaufmann LK, Barth N, Koller A, Tan S, Wiesing U, Hinney A, Libuda L, Wabitsch M, et al. 2020. Short-term metreleptin treatment of patients with anorexia nervosa: rapid on-set of beneficial cognitive, emotional, and behavioral effects. Transl Psychiatry. 10(1):303. eng.
  • Mitchell JE, Christenson G, Jennings J, Huber M, Thomas B, Pomeroy C, Morley J. 1989. A placebo-controlled, double-blind crossover study of naltrexone hydrochloride in outpatients with normal weight bulimia. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 9(2):94–97.
  • Mitchell JE, Fletcher L, Hanson K, Mussell MP, Seim H, Crosby R, Al-Banna M. 2001. The relative efficacy of fluoxetine and manual-based self-help in the treatment of outpatients with bulimia nervosa. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 21(3):298–304.
  • Mitchell JE, Groat R. 1984. A placebo-controlled, double-blind trial of amitriptyline in bulimia. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 4(4):186–193.
  • Mitchell JE, Pyle RL, Eckert ED, Hatsukami D, Pomeroy C, Zimmerman R. 1990. A comparison study of antidepressants and structured intensive group psychotherapy in the treatment of bulimia nervosa. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 47(2):149–157.
  • Monteleone AM, Pellegrino F, Croatto G, Carfagno M, Hilbert A, Treasure J, Wade T, Bulik CM, Zipfel S, Hay P, et al. 2022. Treatment of eating disorders: a systematic meta-review of meta-analyses and network meta-analyses. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 142:104857.
  • Murphy LE, Fonseka TM, Bousman CA, Müller DJ. 2022. Gene-drug pairings for antidepressants and antipsychotics: level of evidence and clinical application. Mol Psychiatry. 27(1):593–605.
  • Naguy A, Al-Mutairi A. 2018. An adolescent male with anorexia nervosa favorably responded to mirtazapine. Am J Ther. 25(6):E675–E676.
  • Naguy A, Roshdy R, Al-Mutairi A, Alwetayan S, Alamiri B. 2021. Mirtazapine improved eating patterns in avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder. Am J Ther. [DOI: 10.1097/MJT.0000000000001338].
  • Naviaux AF. 2019. Management of ARFID (avoidant restrictive food intake disorder) in a 12-year-old on a paediatric ward in a general hospital: use of mirtazapine, partial hospitalisation model and family based therapy. Psychiatr Danub. 31(Suppl 3):421–426.
  • NICE. 2017. Eating disorders: recognition and treatment. [accessed 2019 Dec 21]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng69.
  • Nickel C, Tritt K, Muehlbacher M, Pedrosa Gil F, Mitterlehner FO, Kaplan P, Lahmann C, Leiberich PK, Krawczyk J, Kettler C, et al. 2005. Topiramate treatment in bulimia nervosa patients: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Int J Eat Disord. 38(4):295–300.
  • Norgren S, Danielsson P, Jurold R, Lötborn M, Marcus C. 2003. Orlistat treatment in obese prepubertal children: a pilot study. Acta Paediatr. 92(6):666–670.
  • Nova E, Toro O, Varela P, López-Vidriero I, Morandé G, Marcos A. 2006. Effects of a nutritional intervention with yogurt on lymphocyte subsets and cytokine production capacity in anorexia nervosa patients. Eur J Nutr. 45(4):225–233.
  • Okita K, Shiina A, Nakazato M, Iyo M. 2013. Tandospirone, a 5-HT1A partial agonist is effective in treating anorexia nervosa: a case series. Ann Gen Psychiatry. 12(1):7.
  • Pauwels A, Broers C, Van Houtte B, Rommel N, Vanuytsel T, Tack J. 2018. A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study using baclofen in the treatment of rumination syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol. 113(1):97–104.
  • Pearlstein T, Spurell E, Hohlstein LA, Gurney V, Read J, Fuchs C, Keller MB. 2003. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of fluvoxamine in binge eating disorder: a high placebo response. Arch Womens Ment Health. 6(2):147–151.
  • Peña-Salazar C, Kazah N. 2020. Pica disorder as a symptom of depression in a patient with bipolar disorder and intellectual disability. Actas Esp Psiquiatr. 48(1):36–46.
  • Pope HG Jr., Hudson JI, Jonas JM, Yurgelun-Todd D. 1983. Bulimia treated with imipramine: a placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Am J Psychiatry. 140(5):554–558.
  • Pope HG Jr., Keck PE Jr., McElroy SL, Hudson JI. 1989. A placebo-controlled study of trazodone in bulimia nervosa. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 9(4):254–259.
  • Powers PS, Klabunde M, Kaye W. 2012. Double-blind placebo-controlled trial of quetiapine in anorexia nervosa. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 20(4):331–334.
  • Pruccoli J, Parmeggiani A. 2022. Inpatient treatment of anorexia nervosa with adjunctive valproate: a case series of 14 young and adolescent patients. Eat Weight Disord. 27[(3):1209–1215.
  • Pruccoli J, Pettenuzzo I, Parmeggiani A. 2022. Low-dose olanzapine in the treatment of adolescents with anorexia nervosa: an observational naturalistic case-control study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 32(5):304–310.
  • Pugh JN, Sparks AS, Doran DA, Fleming SC, Langan-Evans C, Kirk B, Fearn R, Morton JP, Close GL. 2019. Four weeks of probiotic supplementation reduces GI symptoms during a marathon race. Eur J Appl Physiol. 119(7):1491–1501.
  • Quilty LC, Allen TA, Davis C, Knyahnytska Y, Kaplan AS. 2019. A randomized comparison of long acting methylphenidate and cognitive behavioral therapy in the treatment of binge eating disorder. Psychiatry Res. 273:467–474.
  • Ricca V, Castellini G, L, Sauro C, Rotella CM, Faravelli C. 2009. Zonisamide combined with cognitive behavioral therapy in binge eating disorder: a one-year follow-up study. Psychiatry. 6(11):23–28.
  • Ricca V, Mannucci E, Mezzani B, Moretti S, Di Bernardo M, Bertelli M, Rotella CM, Faravelli C. 2001. Fluoxetine and fluvoxamine combined with individual cognitive-behaviour therapy in binge eating disorder: a one-year follow-up study. Psychother Psychosom. 70(6):298–306.
  • Ricoux O, Carton L, Ménard O, Deheul S, Gautier S, Bordet R, Cottencin O. 2019. Acute psychosis related to baclofen in a patient treated for binge eating disorder highlights the urgent need to regulate off-label prescriptions. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 39(3):282–284.
  • Robert SA, Rohana AG, Shah SA, Chinna K, Wan Mohamud WN, Kamaruddin NA. 2015. Improvement in binge eating in non-diabetic obese individuals after 3 months of treatment with liraglutide–a pilot study. Obes Res Clin Pract. 9(3):301–304.
  • Romano SJ, Halmi KA, Sarkar NP, Koke SC, Lee JS. 2002. A placebo-controlled study of fluoxetine in continued treatment of bulimia nervosa after successful acute fluoxetine treatment. AJP. 159(1):96–102.
  • Rothschild R, Quitkin HM, Quitkin FM, Stewart JW, Ocepek-Welikson K, McGrath PJ, Tricamo E. 1994. A double-blind placebo-controlled comparison of phenelzine and imipramine in the treatment of bulimia in atypical depressives. Int J Eat Disord. 15(1):1–9.
  • Ruggiero GM, Laini V, Mauri MC, Ferrari VM, Clemente A, Lugo F, Mantero M, Redaelli G, Zappulli D, Cavagnini F. 2001. A single blind comparison of amisulpride, fluoxetine and clomipramine in the treatment of restricting anorectics. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 25(5):1049–1059.
  • Russell DM, Freedman ML, Feiglin DH, Jeejeebhoy KN, Swinson RP, Garfinkel PE. 1983. Delayed gastric emptying and improvement with domperidone in a patient with anorexia nervosa. Am J Psychiatry. 140(9):1235–1236.
  • Russell J, Maguire S, Hunt GE, Kesby A, Suraev A, Stuart J, Booth J, McGregor IS. 2018. Intranasal oxytocin in the treatment of anorexia nervosa: randomized controlled trial during re-feeding. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 87:83–92.
  • Sabine EJ, Yonace A, Farrington AJ, Barratt KH, Wakeling A. 1983. Bulimia nervosa: a placebo controlled double-blind therapeutic trial of mianserin. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 15(Suppl 2): S195–S202.
  • Safer DL, Adler S, Dalai SS, Bentley JP, Toyama H, Pajarito S, Najarian T. 2020. A randomized, placebo-controlled crossover trial of phentermine-topiramate ER in patients with binge-eating disorder and bulimia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 53(2):266–277.
  • Safer DL, Darcy AM, Lock J. 2011. Use of mirtazapine in an adult with refractory anorexia nervosa and comorbid depression: a case report. Int J Eat Disord. 44(2):178–181.
  • Saleh JW, Lebwohl P. 1980. Metoclopramide‐induced gastric emptying in patients with anorexia nervosa. Am J Gastroenterol. 74(2):127–132.
  • Sall D, Wang J, Rashkin M, Welch M, Droege C, Schauer D. 2014. Orlistat-induced fulminant hepatic failure. Clin Obes. 4(6):342–347.
  • Santomauro DF, Melen S, Mitchison D, Vos T, Whiteford H, Ferrari AJ. 2021. The hidden burden of eating disorders: an extension of estimates from the global burden of disease study 2019. Lancet Psychiatry. 8(4):320–328.
  • Santonastaso P, Friederici S, Favaro A. 2001. Sertraline in the treatment of restricting anorexia nervosa: an open controlled trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 11(2):143–150.
  • Sayer M, Duche A, Nguyen TJT, Le M, Patel K, Vu J, Pham D, Vernick B, Beuttler R, Roosan D, et al. 2021. Clinical implications of combinatorial pharmacogenomic tests based on cytochrome P450 variant selection. Front Genet. 12:719671.
  • Schmidt U, Adan R, Böhm I, Campbell IC, Dingemans A, Ehrlich S, Elzakkers I, Favaro A, Giel K, Harrison A, et al. 2016. Eating disorders: the big issue. Lancet Psychiatry. 3(4):313–315.
  • Schmidt U, Cooper PJ, Essers H, Freeman CP, Holland RL, Palmer RL, Shur E, Russell GF, Bowler C, Coker S, et al. 2004. Fluvoxamine and graded psychotherapy in the treatment of bulimia nervosa: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study of short-term and long-term pharmacotherapy combined with a stepped care approach to psychotherapy. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 24(5):549–552.
  • Schwartz T, Trunko ME, Feifel D, Lopez E, Peterson D, Frank GKW, Kaye W. 2021. A longitudinal case series of IM ketamine for patients with severe and enduring eating disorders and comorbid treatment-resistant depression. Clin Case Rep. 9(5):e03869.
  • Scolnick B, Zupec-Kania B, Calabrese L, Aoki C, Hildebrandt T. 2020. Remission from chronic anorexia nervosa with ketogenic diet and ketamine: case report. Front Psychiatry. 11:763.
  • Sharma H. 2021. Statistical significance or clinical significance? A researcher’s dilemma for appropriate interpretation of research results. Saudi J Anaesth. 15(4):431–434.
  • SIGN. 2019. A guideline developer’s handbook. SIGN publication no. 50. Edinburgh; [updated 2019 Nov; accessed]. http://www.sign.ac.uk.
  • Silén Y, Sipilä PN, Raevuori A, Mustelin L, Marttunen M, Kaprio J, Keski-Rahkonen A. 2020. DSM-5 eating disorders among adolescents and young adults in Finland: a public health concern. Int J Eat Disord. 53(5):520–531.
  • Silveira RO, Zanatto V, Appolinário JC, Kapczinski F. 2005. An open trial of reboxetine in obese patients with binge eating disorder. Eat Weight Disord. 10(4):e93–e96.
  • Sokol MS, Gray NS, Goldstein A, Kaye WH. 1999. Methylphenidate treatment for bulimia nervosa associated with a cluster B personality disorder. Int J Eat Disord. 25(2):233–237.
  • Solis B, Nova E, Gómez S, Samartín S, Mouane N, Lemtouni A, Belaoui H, Marcos A. 2002. The effect of fermented milk on interferon production in malnourished children and in anorexia nervosa patients undergoing nutritional care. Eur J Clin Nutr. 56 Suppl 4:S27–S33.
  • Solmi M, Santonastaso P, Caccaro R, Favaro A. 2013. A case of anorexia nervosa with comorbid Crohn’s disease: beneficial effects of anti-TNF-α therapy? Int J Eat Disord. 46(6):639–641.
  • Spettigue W, Buchholz A, Henderson K, Feder S, Moher D, Kourad K, Gaboury I, Norris M, Ledoux S. 2008. Evaluation of the efficacy and safety of olanzapine as an adjunctive treatment for anorexia nervosa in adolescent females: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. BMC Pediatr. 8(1):1–9.
  • Spettigue W, Norris ML, Maras D, Obeid N, Feder S, Harrison ME, Gomez R, Fu MCY, Henderson K, Buchholz A. 2018. Evaluation of the effectiveness and safety of olanzapine as an adjunctive treatment for anorexia nervosa in adolescents: an open-label trial. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 27(3):197–208.
  • Spettigue W, Norris ML, Santos A, Obeid N. 2018. Treatment of children and adolescents with avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder: a case series examining the feasibility of family therapy and adjunctive treatments. J Eat Disord. 6:20.
  • Spriggs MJ, Douglass HM, Park RJ, Read T, Danby JL, de Magalhães FJC, Alderton KL, Williams TM, Blemings A, Lafrance A, et al. 2021. Study protocol for “psilocybin” as a treatment for anorexia nervosa: a pilot study. Front Psychiatry. 12:735523.
  • Stacher G, Abatzi-Wenzel TA, Wiesnagrotzki S, Bergmann H, Schneider C, Gaupmann G. 1993. Gastric emptying, body weight and symptoms in primary anorexia nervosa. Long-term effects of cisapride. Br J Psychiatry. 162(3):398–402.
  • Stacher G, Bergmann H, Wiesnagrotzki S, Kiss A, Schneider C, Mittelbach G, Gaupmann G, Höbart J. 1987. Intravenous cisapride accelerates delayed gastric emptying and increases antral contraction amplitude in patients with primary anorexia nervosa. Gastroenterol. 92(4):1000–1006.
  • Steinglass J, Kaplan SC, Liu Y, Wang Y, Walsh BT. 2014. The (lack of) effect of alprazolam on eating behavior in anorexia nervosa: a preliminary report. Int J Eat Disord. 47(8):901–904.
  • Steinglass J, Sysko R, Schebendach J, Broft A, Strober M, Walsh BT. 2007. The application of exposure therapy and D-cycloserine to the treatment of anorexia nervosa: a preliminary trial. J Psychiatr Pract. 13(4):238–245.
  • Stunkard A, Berkowitz R, Tanrikut C, Reiss E, Young L. 1996. d-fenfluramine treatment of binge eating disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 153(11):1455–1459.
  • Sundblad C, Landén M, Eriksson T, Bergman L, Eriksson E. 2005. Effects of the androgen antagonist flutamide and the serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram in bulimia nervosa: a placebo-controlled pilot study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 25(1):85–88.
  • Sysko R, Sha N, Wang Y, Duan N, Walsh BT. 2010. Early response to antidepressant treatment in bulimia nervosa. Psychol Med. 40(6):999–1005.
  • Szmukler GI, Young GP, Miller G, Lichtenstein M, Binns DS. 1995. A controlled trial of cisapride in anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord. 17(4):347–357.
  • Tahıllıoğlu A, Özcan T, Yüksel G, Majroh N, Köse S, Özbaran B. 2020. Is aripiprazole a key to unlock anorexia nervosa?: a case series. Clin Case Rep. 8(12):2827–2834.
  • Tak YJ, Lee SY. 2021. Long-Term efficacy and safety of anti-obesity treatment: where do we stand? Curr Obes Rep. 10(1):14–30.
  • Treasure J, Hübel C, Himmerich H. 2022. The evolving epidemiology and differential etiopathogenesis of eating disorders: implications for prevention and treatment. World Psychiatry. 21(1):147–148.
  • Trunko ME, Schwartz TA, Berner LA, Cusack A, Nakamura T, Bailer UF, Chen JY, Kaye WH. 2017. A pilot open series of lamotrigine in DBT-treated eating disorders characterized by significant affective dysregulation and poor impulse control. Borderline Personal Disord Emot Dysregul. 4(1):1–10.
  • Trunko ME, Schwartz TA, Duvvuri V, Kaye WH. 2011. Aripiprazole in anorexia nervosa and low-weight bulimia nervosa: case reports. Int J Eat Disord. 44(3):269–275.
  • Trunko ME, Schwartz TA, Marzola E, Klein AS, Kaye WH. 2014. Lamotrigine use in patients with binge eating and purging, significant affect dysregulation, and poor impulse control. Int J Eat Disord. 47(3):329–334.
  • Tyrrell-Bunge E, de Carvalho AF, Scott C, Tomlin S, Treasure J, Himmerich H. 2018. A three level-intervention to reduce PRN medication on a specialist eating disorders ward for adult female patients with anorexia nervosa. Psychiatr Danub. 30(1):107–108.
  • Ulfvebrand S, Birgegård A, Norring C, Högdahl L, von Hausswolff-Juhlin Y. 2015. Psychiatric comorbidity in women and men with eating disorders results from a large clinical database. Psychiatry Res. 230(2):294–299.
  • Umehara H, Iga J, Ohmori T. 2014. Successful treatment of anorexia nervosa in a 10-year-old boy with risperidone long-acting injection. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 12(1):65–66.
  • Upadhyaya SK, Sharma A. 2012. Onset of obsessive compulsive disorder in pregnancy with pica as the sole manifestation. Indian J Psychol Med. 34(3):276–278.
  • US Food and Drug Administration. 2008. Statistical review and evaluation: antiepileptic drugs and suicidality. Silver Spring (MD); [updated 2008 May 23; accessed]. https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/08/briefing/2008-4372b1-01-FDA,pdf.
  • Vachhani H, Ribeiro BS, Schey R. 2020. Rumination syndrome: recognition and treatment. Curr Treat Options Gastro. 18(1):60–68.
  • Vandereycken W. 1984. Neuroleptics in the short-term treatment of anorexia nervosa. A double-blind placebo-controlled study with sulpiride. Br J Psychiatry. 144(3):288–292.
  • Vandereycken W, Pierloot R. 1982. Pimozide combined with behavior therapy in the short-term treatment of anorexia nervosa. A double-blind placebo-controlled cross-over study. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 66(6):445–450.
  • Viana M, Terreno E, Goadsby PJ, Nappi RE. 2014. Topiramate for migraine prevention in fertile women: reproductive counseling is warranted. Cephalalgia. 34(13):1097–1099.
  • Walsh BT, Agras WS, Devlin MJ, Fairburn CG, Wilson GT, Kahn C, Chally MK. 2000. Fluoxetine for bulimia nervosa following poor response to psychotherapy. Am J Psychiatry. 157(8):1332–1334.
  • Walsh BT, Gladis M, Roose SP, Stewart JW, Stetner F, Glassman AH. 1988. Phenelzine vs placebo in 50 patients with bulimia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 45(5):471–475.
  • Walsh BT, Hadigan CM, Devlin MJ, Gladis M, Roose SP. 1991. Long-term outcome of antidepressant treatment for bulimia nervosa. Am J Psychiatry. 148(9):1206–1212.
  • Walsh BT, Kaplan AS, Attia E, Olmsted M, Parides M, Carter JC, Pike KM, Devlin MJ, Woodside B, Roberto CA, et al. 2006. Fluoxetine after weight restoration in anorexia nervosa. JAMA. 295(22):2605–2612.
  • Walsh BT, Stewart JW, Roose SP, Gladis M, Glassman AH. 1984. Treatment of bulimia with phenelzine. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 41(11):1105–1109.
  • Wilfley DE, Crow SJ, Hudson JI, Mitchell JE, Berkowitz RI, Blakesley V, Walsh BT. 2008. Efficacy of sibutramine for the treatment of binge eating disorder: a randomized multicenter placebo-controlled double-blind study. Am J Psychiatry. 165(1):51–58.
  • Xu Z, Li Q. 2020. TAAR agonists. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 40(2):257–272.
  • Yancy WS Jr., Westman EC, McDuffie JR, Grambow SC, Jeffreys AS, Bolton J, Chalecki A, Oddone EZ. 2010. A randomized trial of a low-carbohydrate diet vs orlistat plus a low-fat diet for weight loss. Arch Intern Med. 170(2):136–145.
  • You XX, Olten B, Gandhi K, Desai S, Gerolemou A. 2021. Pica in a patient with decompensated schizophrenia. Cureus. 13(9):e17964.