132
Views
10
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Using stable δ13C and δ15N isotopes to assess foodweb structures in an African subtropical temporary pool

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, , , ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon show all
Pages 79-92 | Received 29 Jul 2019, Accepted 11 Feb 2020, Published online: 08 Apr 2020

References

  • Abrantes KG, Barnett A, Bouillon S. 2014. Stable isotope-based community metrics as a tool to identify patterns in food web structure in east African estuaries. Functional Ecology 28: 270–282. doi: 10.1111/1365-2435.12155
  • Akamatsu F, Toda H, Okino T. 2004. Food source of riparian spiders analysed by using stable isotope ratios. Ecological Research 19: 655–662. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1703.2004.00680.x
  • Alexander RB, Böhlke JK, Boyer EW, David MB, Harvey JW, Mulholland PJ, Seitzinger SP, Tobias CR, Tonitto C, Wollheim WM. 2009. Dynamic modelling of nitrogen losses in river networks unravels the coupled effects of hydrological and biogeochemical processes. Biogeochemistry 93: 91–116. doi: 10.1007/s10533-008-9274-8
  • Armstrong RA. 2014. When to use the Bonferroni correction. Ophthalmic & Physiological Optics 34: 502–508. doi: 10.1111/opo.12131
  • Batzer D, Boix D. (Eds). 2016. Invertebrates in freshwater wetlands: An international perspective on their ecology. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
  • Baudoin MG, Vogel C, Nortje K, Naik M. 2017. Living with drought in South Africa: lessons learnt from the recent El Niño drought period. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 23: 128–137. doi: 10.1016/j.ijdrr.2017.05.005
  • Biggs J, Williams P, Whitfield M, Nicolet P, Weatherby A. 2005. 15 Years of pond assessment in Britain: results and lessons learned from the work of Pond Conservation. Aquatic Conservation 15: 693–714. doi: 10.1002/aqc.745
  • Bird MS, Perissinotto R, Miranda NAF, Peer N, Raw JL. 2016. Stable isotope analysis of consumer food webs indicates ecosystem recovery following prolonged drought in a subtropical estuarine lake. African Journal of Marine Science 38: 411–422. doi: 10.2989/1814232X.2016.1220979
  • Bird MS, Mlambo MC, Wasserman RJ, Dalu T, Holland AJ, Day JA, Villet MH, Bilton DT, Barber-James HM, Brendonck L. 2019. Deeper knowledge of shallow waters: reviewing the invertebrate fauna of southern African temporary wetlands. Hydrobiologia 827: 89–121. doi: 10.1007/s10750-018-3772-z
  • Boecklen WJ, Yarnes CT, Cook BA, James AC. 2011. On the use of stable isotopes in trophic ecology. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 42: 411–440. doi: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102209-144726
  • Boersma K, Bogan MT, Henrichs BA, Lytle DA. 2014. Invertebrate assemblages of pools in arid-land streams have high functional redundancy and are resistant to severe drying. Freshwater Biology 59: 491–501. doi: 10.1111/fwb.12280
  • Borrelli JJ, Ginzburg LR. 2014. Why there are so few trophic levels: Selection against instability explains the pattern. Food Webs 1: 10–17. doi: 10.1016/j.fooweb.2014.11.002
  • Brendonck L, Williams WD. 2000. Biodiversity in wetlands of dry regions (drylands). pp 181–194. In: Gopal B, Junk WJ, Davis JA (Eds). Biodiversity in Wetlands: Assessment, function and conservation. The Netherlands: Backhuys Publishers.
  • Brock MA, Nielsen DL, Shiel RJ, Green JD, Langley JD. 2003. Drought and aquatic community resilience: the role of eggs and seeds in sediments of temporary wetlands. Freshwater Biology 48: 1207–1218. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2427.2003.01083.x
  • Buckland A, Baker R, Loneragan N, Sheaves M. 2017. Standardising fish stomach content analysis: the importance of prey condition. Fisheries Research 196: 126–140. doi: 10.1016/j.fishres.2017.08.003
  • Cabana G, Rasmussen JB. 1996. Comparison of aquatic food chains using nitrogen isotopes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 93: 10844–10847. doi: 10.1073/pnas.93.20.10844
  • Calverly PM, Downs CT. 2014. Population status of Nile crocodiles in Ndumo Game Reserve, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (1971–2012). Herpetologica 70: 426–438. doi: 10.1655/HERPETOLOGICA-D-13-00088
  • Chen Q, Liu Y, Ho WT, Chan SK, Li QH, Huang JR (2017) Use of stable isotopes to understand food webs in Macao wetlands. Wetlands Ecology and Management 25: 59–66. doi: 10.1007/s11273-016-9502-2
  • de Klerk AR, de Klerk LP, Oberholster PJ, Ashton PJ, Dini JA, Holness SD. 2016. A review of depressional wetlands (pans) in South Africa, including a water quality classification system. WRC Report No 2230/1/16, Pretoria: Water Research Commission.
  • de Meester L, Declerck S, Stoks R, Louette G, van de Meutter F, de Bie T, Michels E, Brendonck L. 2005. Ponds and pools as model systems in conservation biology, ecology and evolutionary biology. Aquatic Conservation 15: 715–725. doi: 10.1002/aqc.748
  • deBruyn AMH, Marcogliese DJ, Rasmussen JB. 2003. The role of sewage in a large river food web. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 60: 1332–1344. doi: 10.1139/f03-114
  • DeNiro MJ, Epstein S. 1978. Influence of diet on the distribution of carbon isotopes in animals. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 42: 495–506. doi: 10.1016/0016-7037(78)90199-0
  • Doi H, Chang KH, Ando T, Ninomiya I, Imai H, Nakano SI. 2009. Resource availability and ecosystem size predict food-chain length in pond ecosystems. Oikos 118: 138–144. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2008.17171.x
  • Dube T, Wepener V, van Vuren JHJ, Smit N, Brendonck L. 2015. The case for environmental flow determination for the Phongolo River, South Africa. African Journal of Aquatic Sciences 40: 269–276. doi: 10.2989/16085914.2015.1074061
  • Dube T, de Necker L, van Vuren JHJ, Wepener, V, Smit NJ, Brendonck L. 2017. Spatial and temporal variation of invertebrate community structure in flood-controlled tropical floodplain wetlands. Journal of Freshwater Ecology 32: 1–15. doi: 10.1080/02705060.2016.1230562
  • Dube T, Pinceel T, de Necker L, Wepener V, Lemmens P, Brendonck L. 2019. Lateral hydrological connectivity differentially affects the community characteristics of multiple groups of aquatic invertebrates in tropical wetland pans in South Africa. Freshwater Biology 64: 2189–2203. doi: 10.1111/fwb.13406
  • Furness AI. 2016. The evolution of an annual life cycle in killifish: adaptation to ephemeral aquatic environments through embryonic diapause. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 91: 796–812. doi: 10.1111/brv.12194
  • Gabler HM, Amundsen PE. 2010. Feeding strategies, resource utilisation and potential mechanisms for competitive coexistence of Atlantic salmon and alpine bullhead in a sub-Arctic river. Aquatic Ecology 44: 325–336. doi: 10.1007/s10452-009-9243-x
  • Goudie AS, Wells GL. 1995. The nature, distribution and formation of pans in arid zones. Earth-Science Reviews 38: 1–69. doi: 10.1016/0012-8252(94)00066-6
  • Guedes APP, Araújo FG, Pessanha ALM, Milagre RR. 2015. Partitioning of the feeding niche along spatial, seasonal and size dimensions by the fish community in a tropical Bay in Southeastern Brazil. Marine Ecology (Berlin) 36: 38–56. doi: 10.1111/maec.12115
  • Hayes JM, Freeman KH, Popp BN, Hoham CH. 1990. Compound- specific isotopic analysis: a novel tool for reconstruction of ancient biogeochemical processes. Organic Geochemistry 16: 1115–1128. doi: 10.1016/0146-6380(90)90147-R
  • Hicks KA, Loomer HA, Fuzzen MLM, Kleywegt S, Tetreault GR. McMaster ME, Servos MR. 2017. δ15N tracks changes in the assimilation of sewage-derived nutrients into a riverine food web before and after major process: alterations at two municipal wastewater treatment plants. Ecological Indicators 72: 747–758. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.09.011
  • Holgerson MA, Post DM, Skelly DK. 2016. Reconciling the role of terrestrial leaves in pond food webs: a whole-ecosystem experiment. Ecology 97: 1771–1782. doi: 10.1890/15-1848.1
  • Hubert WA, Pope KL, Dettmers JM. Passive capture techniques. 2012. pp 223–265. In: Zale AV, Parrish DL, Sutton TM (Eds). Fisheries techniques. 3rd edn. Bethesda, United States: American Fisheries Society.
  • Hyslop EJ. 1980. The food habits of four small-sized species of Mormyridae from the floodplain pools of the Sokoto-Rima river basin, Nigeria. Journal of Fish Biology 28: 147–151. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8649.1986.tb05152.x
  • Jackson AL, Inger R, Parnell AC, Bearhop S. 2011. Comparing isotopic niche widths along and within communities: SIBER - Stable Isotope Bayesian Ellipses in R. Journal of Animal Ecology 80: 595–602. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2656.2011.01806.x
  • Jocque M, Vanschoenwinkel B, Brendonck L. 2010. Freshwater rock pools: a review of habitat characteristics, faunal diversity and conservation value. Freshwater Biology 55: 1587–1602.
  • Jones BL, Unsworth RKF. 2016. The perilous state of seagrass in the British Isles. Royal Society Open Science 3: 150596. doi: 10.1098/rsos.150596
  • Jones B, Cullen-Unsworth L, Unsworth RKF. 2018. Tracking nitrogen source using 15N reveals human and agricultural drivers of seagrass degradation across the British Isles. Frontiers in Plant Science 9: 133. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00133
  • Jozini Local Municipality. 2017. Jozini Local Municipality integrated development plan (4th Generation). 2017. Prepared by Jozini Municipality, Bottom Town, Jozini, South Africa. Available from: http://www.jozini.gov.za/. [Accessed 10 November 2019].
  • Klaassen M, Piersma T, Korthals H, Dekinga A, Dietz MW. 2010. Single-point isotope measurements in blood cells and plasma to estimate the time since diet switches. Functional Ecology 24: 796–804. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01689.x
  • Kolts JM, Lovvorn JR, North CA, Grebmeier JM, Cooper LW. 2013. Relative value of stomach contents, stable isotopes, and fatty acids as diet indicators for a dominant invertebrate predator (Chionoecetes opilio) in the northern Bering Sea. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 449: 274–283. doi: 10.1016/j.jembe.2013.10.005
  • Lake JL, McKinney RA, Osterman FA, Pruell RJ, Kiddon J, Ryba SA, Libby AD. 2001. Stable nitrogen isotopes as indicators of anthropogenic activities in small freshwater systems. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58: 870–878. doi: 10.1139/f01-038
  • Lankford B, Pringle C, Dickens C, Lewis F, Mander M, Chhotray V, Goulden M, Nxele Z, Quayle L. 2011. Hydrological modelling of water allocation, ecosystem services and poverty alleviation in the Pongola floodplain, South Africa. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 54: 1237–1260. doi: 10.1080/09640568.2011.567127
  • Laufer G, Arim M, Loureiro M, Piñeiro-Guerra JM, Clavijo-Baquet S, Fagúndez. 2009. Diet of four annual killifishes: an intra and interspecific comparison. Neotropical Ichthyology 7: 77–86. doi: 10.1590/S1679-62252009000100010
  • Lemmens P, Teffera FE, Wynants M, Govaert L, Deckers J, Bauer H, Woldeyes, Brendonck L, Bouillon S, De Meester L. 2017. Intra- and interspecific niche variation as reconstructed from stable isotopes in two ecologically different Ethiopian Rift Valley lakes. Functional Ecology 31: 1482–1492. doi: 10.1111/1365-2435.12852
  • Lu X, Gray C, Brown LE, Ledger ME, Milner AM, Mondragón RJ, Woodward G, Ma A. 2016. Drought rewires the cores of food webs. Nature Climate Change 6: 875–878. doi: 10.1038/nclimate3002
  • Lundkvist E, Landin J, Jackson M, Svensson C. 2003. Diving beetles (Dytiscidae) as predators of mosquito larvae (Culicidae) in field experiments and in laboratory tests of prey preferences. Bulletin of Entomological Research 93: 219–226. doi: 10.1079/BER2003237
  • Luz-Agostinho KDG, Agostinho AA, Gomes LC, Júlio-Jr HF, Fugi R. 2009. Effects of flooding regimes on the feeding activity and body condition of piscivorous fish in the Upper Paraná River floodplain. Brazilian Journal of Biology 69: 481–490. doi: 10.1590/S1519-69842009000300004
  • MacArthur R. 1955. Fluctuations of animal populations, and a measure of community stability. Ecology 36: 533–536. doi: 10.2307/1929601
  • Manfrin A, Lehmann D, van Grunsven RHA, Larsen S, Syväranta J, Wharton G, Voigt CC, Monaghan MT, Hölker F. 2018. Dietary changes in predators and scavengers in a nocturnally illuminated riparian ecosystem. Oikos 127: 960–969. doi: 10.1111/oik.04696
  • Marchese MR, Saigo M, Zilli FL, Capello S, Devercelli M, Montalto L, Paporello G, Wantzen KM. 2014. Food webs of the Paraná River floodplain: assessing basal sources using stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes. Limnologica 46: 22–30. doi: 10.1016/j.limno.2013.11.004
  • Matiatos I. 2016. Nitrate source identification in groundwater of multiple land-use areas by combining isotopes and multivariate statistical analysis: a case study of Asopos basin (Central Greece). Science of the Total Environment 541: 802–814. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.09.134
  • McClelland JW, Valiela I, Michener RH. 1997. Nitrogen-stable isotope signatures in estuarine food webs: A record of increasing urbanization in coastal watersheds. Limnology and Oceanography 42: 930–937. doi: 10.4319/lo.1997.42.5.0930
  • McHugh KJ, Smit NJ, van Vuren JHJ, van Dyk JC, Bervoets L, Covaci A, Wepener V. 2011. A histology-based fish health assessment of the tigerfish, Hydrocynus vittatus, from a DDT-affected area. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 36: 895–904. doi: 10.1016/j.pce.2011.07.077
  • McMeans BC, McCann KS, Humphries M, Rooney N, Fisk AT. 2015. Food web structure in temporally-forced ecosystems. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 30: 662–672. doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2015.09.001
  • Montaña CG, Schalk CM, Taphorn DC. 2012. First record of Van den Berg’s Pearlfish, Austrolebias vandenbergi Huber 1995 (Cyprinodontiformes: Rivulidae) in Bolivia with comments on its diet and reproductive biology. Check List 8: 589–591. doi: 10.15560/8.3.589
  • Nezhybová V, Reichard M, Blažek R, Ondračková M. 2017. Metazoan parasites of African annual killifish (Nothobranchiidae): abundance, diversity and their environmental correlates. Biotropica 49: 229–238. doi: 10.1111/btp.12396
  • Nicolet P. 2001. Temporary ponds in the UK: a critical biodiversity resource for freshwater plants and animals. Freshwater Forum 17: 16–25.
  • O’Neill BJ, Thorp JH. 2014. Untangling food-web structure in an ephemeral ecosystem. Freshwater Biology 59: 1462–1473. doi: 10.1111/fwb.12358
  • Parnell AC, Inger R, Bearhop S, Jackson AL. 2010. Source partitioning using stable isotopes: coping with too much variation. PLoS One 5: e9672. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009672
  • Parnell AC, Phillips DL, Bearhop S, Semmens BX, Ward EJ, Moore JW, Jackson AL, Grey J, Kelly DJ, Inger R. 2012. Bayesian stable isotope mixing models. Environmetrics 24: 387–399.
  • Phillips DL. 2012. Converting isotope values to diet composition: The use of mixing models. Journal of Mammalogy 93: 342–352. doi: 10.1644/11-MAMM-S-158.1
  • Phillips DL, Eldridge PM. 2006. Estimating the timing of diets shifts using stable isotopes. Oecologia. 142: 195–203. doi: 10.1007/s00442-005-0292-0
  • Phillips DL, Newsome SD, Gregg JW. 2005. Combining sources in stable isotope mixing models: alternative methods. Oecologia 144: 520–527. doi: 10.1007/s00442-004-1816-8
  • Phillips DL, Inger R, Bearhop S, Jackson AL, Moore JW, Parnell AC, Semmens BX, Ward EJ. 2014. Best practices for use of stable isotope mixing models in food-web studies. Canadian Journal of Zoology 92: 823–835. doi: 10.1139/cjz-2014-0127
  • Pimm SL, Lawton JH. 1977. The numbers of trophic levels in ecological communities. Nature 268: 329–331. doi: 10.1038/268329a0
  • Pinceel T, Vanschoenwinkel B, Deckers P, Grégoir A, ver Eecke T, Brendonck L. 2015. Early and late developmental arrest as complementary embryonic bet-hedging strategies in African killifish. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. Linnean Society of London 114: 941–948. doi: 10.1111/bij.12474
  • Polačik M, Reichard M. 2010. Diet overlap among three sympatric African annual killifish species Nothobranchius spp. from Mozambique. Journal of Fish Biology 77: 754–768.
  • Polačik M, Harrod C, Blažek, Reichard M. 2014. Trophic niche partitioning in communities of African annual fish: evidence from stable isotopes. Hydrobiologia 721: 99–106. doi: 10.1007/s10750-013-1652-0
  • Post DM, Layman CA, Arrington DA, Takimoto G, Quattrochi J, Montaña CG. 2007. Getting to the fat of the matter: models, methods and assumptions for dealing with lipids in stable isotope analyses. Oecologia 157: 179–189. doi: 10.1007/s00442-006-0630-x
  • R Core Team. 2017. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
  • Rooney N, McCann KS. 2012. Integrating food web diversity, structure and stability. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 27: 40–46. doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2011.09.001
  • South African Wetlands Conservation Programme (SA Wetlands Conservation Programme). 1996. Ndumo Game Reserve, South Africa, information sheet. South African Wetlands Conservation Programme. Document No: 24/21/3/3/3/15. Pretoria, South Africa: Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism.
  • Schindler DE, Hodgson JR, Kitchell JF. 1997. Density-dependent changes in individual foraging specialization of largemouth bass. Oecologia 110: 592–600. doi: 10.1007/s004420050200
  • Schneider DW, Frost TM. 1996. Habitat duration and community structure in temporary ponds. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 15: 64–86. doi: 10.2307/1467433
  • Schriever TA, Williams DD. 2013. Influence of pond hydroperiod, size and community richness on food-chain length. Freshwater Science 32: 964–975. doi: 10.1899/13-008.1
  • Sereda BL, Meinhardt HR. 2003. Insecticide contamination of the water environment in malaria endemic areas of KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa). WRC Report No 1119/1/03, Pretoria, South Africa: Water Research Commission.
  • Sereda BL, Meinhardt HR. 2005. Contamination of the water environment in malaria endemic area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa by DDT and its metabolites. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 75: 538–545. doi: 10.1007/s00128-005-0785-x
  • Skelton PH. 2012. A complete guide to the freshwater fishes of Southern Africa. Cape Town, South Africa: Struik Publishers.
  • Smit NJ, Vlok W, van Vuren JHJ., du Preez L, van Eeden E, O’Brien GC, Wepener V. 2016. Socio-ecological system management of the lower Phongolo River and floodplain using relative risk methodology. WRC Report No 2185/1/16. Pretoria, South Africa: Water Research Commission.
  • Smith JA, Mazumder D, Suthers IM, Taylor MD. 2013. To fit or not to fit: evaluating stable isotope mixing models using simulated mixing polygons. Methods in Ecology and Evolution 4: 612–618. doi: 10.1111/2041-210X.12048
  • Stock BC and Semmens BX. 2016. MixSIAR GUI User Manual. Version 3.1. Available at: https://github.com/brianstock/MixSIAR/. [accessed 10 May 2019].
  • Stock BC, Jackson AL, Ward EJ, Parnell AC, Phillips DL, Semmens BX. 2018. Analyzing mixing systems using a new generation of Bayesian tracer mixing models. PeerJ 6: e5096. doi: 10.7717/peerj.5096
  • Stoline MR. 1981. The status of multiple comparisons: Simultaneous estimation of all pairwise comparisons in one-way ANOVA designs. American Statistical Association 35: 134–141.
  • Taylor GC, Hill JM, Jackson MC, Peel RA, Weyl OLF. 2017. Estimating δ15N fractionation and adjusting the lipid correction equation using southern African freshwater fishes. PLoS One 12: e0178047. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0178047
  • Tennessen KJ. 2008. Odonata. pp 237–294. In: Merritt RW, Cummins KW, Berg MB (Eds). An introduction to the aquatic insects of North America. Dubuque, United States: Kendall/Hunt Publications.
  • Tewfik A, Rasmussen JB, McCann KS. 2005. Anthropogenic enrichment alters a marine benthic food web. Ecology 86: 2726–2736. doi: 10.1890/04-1537
  • Thiébaut G. 2008. Phosphorus and aquatic plants. pp 31–49. In: White PJ, Hammond JP. (Eds) The ecophysiology of plant-phosphorus interactions. Plant ecophysiology. Volume 7. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.
  • Thoré ESJ, Steenaerts L, Philippe C, Grégoir A, Brendonck L, Pinceel T. 2018. Individual behavioral variation reflects personality divergence in the upcoming model organism Nothobranchius furzeri. Ecology and Evolution 8: 8448–8457. doi: 10.1002/ece3.4356
  • Trexler JC, Loftus WF, Perry S. 2005. Disturbance frequency and community structure in a twenty-five year intervention study. Oecologia 145: 140–152. doi: 10.1007/s00442-005-0094-4
  • Valladares S, Soto DX, Planas M. 2017. Dietary composition of endangered seahorses determined by stable isotope analysis. Marine and Freshwater Research 68: 831–839. doi: 10.1071/MF16013
  • Vander Zanden MJ, Shuter BJ, Lester NP, Rasmussen JB. 2000. Within-and among-population variation in the trophic position of a pelagic predator, lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 57: 725–731. doi: 10.1139/f00-011
  • Vander Zanden MJ, Fetzer WW. 2007. Global patterns of aquatic food chain length. Oikos 116: 1378–1388. doi: 10.1111/j.0030-1299.2007.16036.x
  • Vanschoenwinkel B, Hulsmans A, de Roeck E, de Vries C, Seaman M, Brendonck L. 2009. Community structure in temporary freshwater pools: disentangling the effects of habitat size and hydroregime. Freshwater Biology 54: 1487–1500. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02198.x
  • Watters BR (2009) The ecology and distribution of Nothobranchius fishes. Journal of the American Killifish Association 42: 105–127.
  • Weis JS, Samson J, Zhou T, Skurnick J, Weis P. 2001. Prey capture ability of mummichogs (Fundulus heteroclitus) as a behavioural biomarker for contaminants in estuarine systems. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 58: 1442–1452. doi: 10.1139/f01-086
  • Wepener V, van Dyk JC, Bervoets L, O’Brien G, Covaci A, Cloete Y. 2011. An assessment of the influence of multiple stressors on the Vaal River, South Africa. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 36: 949–962. doi: 10.1016/j.pce.2011.07.075
  • Whittington M, Malan G, Panagos MD. 2013. Trends in waterbird diversity at Banzi, Shokwe and Nyamithi pans, Ndumo Game Reserve, South Africa. Ostrich 84: 47–61. doi: 10.2989/00306525.2013.775188
  • Wiggins GB, Mackay RJ, Smith IM. 1980. Evolutionary and ecological strategies of animals in annual temporary pools. Archiv für Hydrobiologie 58: 97–206.
  • Wildekamp RH. 2004. A world of killies: atlas of the oviparous cyprinodontiform fishes of the world. Volume 4. Elyria, United States: American Killifish Association
  • Wolmarans, NJ, H Du Preez, LH, Yohannes, YB, Ikenaka, Y, Ishizuka, M, Smit, NJ, Wepener, V. 2018. Linking organochlorine exposure to biomarker response patterns in Anurans: a case study of Müller’s clawed frog (Xenopus muelleri) from a tropical malaria vector control region. Ecotoxicology (London, England) 27: 1203–1216. doi: 10.1007/s10646-018-1972-y
  • Woodward G. 2009. Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and food webs in fresh waters: assembling the jigsaw puzzle. Freshwater Biology 54: 2171–2187. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2427.2008.02081.x
  • Zacharias I, Zamparas M. 2010. Mediterranean temporary ponds. A disappearing ecosystem. Biodiversity and Conservation 19: 3827–3834. doi: 10.1007/s10531-010-9933-7
  • Zedler PH. 2003. Vernal pools and the concept of ‘isolated wetlands’. Wetlands 23: 597–607. doi: 10.1672/0277-5212(2003)023[0597:VPATCO]2.0.CO;2

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.