De-Professionalized and Demoralized: A Framework for Understanding Teacher Turnover in the Accountability Policy ERA

References

• Abrams, L. M., Pedulla, J. J., & Madaus, G. F. (2003). Views from the classroom: Teachers’ opinions of statewide testing programs. Theory into Practice, 42(1), 18–29. doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4201_4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adams, G. J. (1996). Using a Cox regression model to examine voluntary teacher turnover. The Journal of Experimental Education, 64(3), 267–285. doi:10.1080/00220973.1996.9943807
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adams, K. L., & Adams, D. E. (2003). Urban education: A reference handbook. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO.
   Google Scholar
• Allen, M., . B. (2005). Eight questions on teacher recruitment and retention: What does the research say? A summary of the findings. Retrieved from http://www.ecs.org/clearinghouse/64/58/6458.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Apple, M. W. (2006). Educating the “right” way: Markets, standards, god, and inequality (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Au, W. (2007). High-stakes testing and curricular control: A qualitative metasynthesis. Educational Researcher, 36, 258–267. doi:10.3102/0013189X07306523
   Google Scholar
• Au, W. (2009a). High-stakes testing and discursive control: The triple bind for nonstandard student identities. Multicultural Perspectives, 11(2), 65–71. doi:10.1080/15210960903028727
   Google Scholar
• Au, W. (2009b). Unequal by design: High-stakes testing and the standardization of inequality. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Au, W. (2011). Teaching under the new Taylorism: High‐stakes testing and the standardization of the 21st century curriculum. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 43(1), 25–45.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Au, W., & Apple, M. W. (2010). Reviewing policy: Testing, accountability and the politics of education. Educational Policy, 24(2), 421–433. doi:10.1177/0895904810361724
   Google Scholar
• Baker, E. L., Barton, P. E., Darling-Hammond, L., Haertel, E., Ladd, H. F., Linn, R. L., … Shepard, L. A. (2010). Problems with the use of student test Scores to evaluate teachers (EPI Briefing Paper# 278). Retrieved from https://www.epi.org/publication/bp278/
   Google Scholar
• Billingsley, B. S., & Cross, L. H. (1992). Predictors of commitment, job satisfaction, and intent to stay in teaching: A comparison of general and special educators. The Journal of Special Education, 25(4), 453. doi:10.1177/002246699202500404
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borman, G. D., & Dowling, N. M. (2008). Teacher attrition and retention: A meta-analytic and narrative review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 78(3), 367–409. doi:10.3102/0034654308321455
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyce, J. (2015). Commitment and leadership: What we know from the schools and staffing survey (Dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest. (UMI Number: 3700814)
   Google Scholar
• Boyd, D., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., Ronfeldt, M., & Wyckoff, J. (2011). The role of teacher quality in retention and hiring: Using applications to transfer to uncover preferences of teachers and schools. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 30(1), 88–110. doi:10.1002/pam.20545
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd, D., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2005). Explaining the short careers of high-achieving teachers in schools with low-performing students. (Report). American Economic Review, 95(2), 166. doi:10.1257/000282805774669628
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyd, D., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., & Wyckoff, J. (2013). Analyzing the determinants of the matching of public school teachers to jobs: Disentangling the preferences of teachers and employers. Journal of Labor Economics, 31(1), 83–117. doi:10.1086/666725
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brill, S., & McCartney, A. (2008). Stopping the revolving door: Increasing teacher retention. Politics & Policy, 36(5), 750–774. doi:10.1111/j.1747-1346.2008.00133.x
   Google Scholar
• Bryk, A. S., Gomez, L. M., Grunow, A., & LeMahieu, P. G. (2015). Learning to improve: How America’s schools can get better at getting better. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bryk, A. S., & Schneider, B. (2002). Trust in schools: A core resource for improvement. New York, NY: The Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Bryk, A. S., Sebring, P. B., Allensworth, E., Luppescu, S., & Easton, J. Q. (2009). Survey measures, factors, composite variables, and items used in organizing schools for improvement: Lessons from Chicago. Retrieved from https://consortium.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/Survey%20Development%20Process%20Appendix.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Bryk, A. S., Sebring, P. B., Allensworth, E., Luppescu, S., & Easton, J. Q. (2010). Organizing schools for improvement lessons from Chicago. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Burch, P. (2009). Hidden markets: The new education privatization. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Burch, P. E. (2006). The new educational privatization: Educational contracting and high stakes accountability. Teachers College Record, 108, 2582–2610. doi:10.1111/tcre.2006.108.issue-12
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrd-Blake, M., Afolayan, M. O., Hunt, J. W., Fabunmi, M., Pryor, B. W., & Leander, R. (2010). Morale of teachers in high poverty schools: A post-NCLB mixed methods analysis. Education and Urban Society, 42(4), 450–472. doi:10.1177/0013124510362340
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camp, E. M., & Oesterreich, H. A. (2010). Uncommon teaching in commonsense times: A case study of a critical multicultural educator & the academic success of diverse student populations. Multicultural Education, 17(2), 20.
   Google Scholar
• Cawelti, G. (2006). The side effects of NCLB. Educational Leadership, 64(3), 64.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clotfelter, C., Glennie, E., Ladd, H., & Vigdor, J. (2008). Would higher salaries keep teachers in high-poverty schools? Evidence from a policy intervention in North Carolina. Journal of Public Economics, 92(5), 1352–1370. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2007.07.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clotfelter, C. T., Ladd, H. F., & Vigdor, J. L. (2011). Teacher mobility, school segregation, and pay-based policies to level the playing field. Education Finance and Policy, 6(3), 399–438.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clotfelter, C. T., Ladd, H. F., Vigdor, J. L., & Diaz, R. A. (2004). Do school accountability systems make it more difficult for low‐performing schools to attract and retain high‐quality teachers?. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 23(2), 251–271.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clotfelter, C. T., Ladd, H. F., Vigdor, J. L., & Wheeler, J. (2007). High-poverty schools and the distribution of teachers and principals. (High poverty schooling in America: Lessons in second class citizenship). North Carolina Law Review, 85(5), 1345–1379.
   Google Scholar
• Cornell, D. G., & Mayer, M. J. (2010). Why do school order and safety matter? Educational Researcher, 39(1), 7–15. doi:10.3102/0013189x09357616
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuban, L. (2007). Hugging the middle. Teaching in an era of testing and accountability, 1980–2005. Education Policy Analysis Archives/Archivos Analíticos De Políticas Educativas, 15, 1.
   Google Scholar
• Cunningham, J. (2014). Accountability in private school choice programs. Washington, DC: National Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved from https://www.ncsl.org/documents/educ/AccountabilityInPrivateSchoolChoice.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Darling-Hammond, L. (2003). Keeping good teachers: Why it matters, what leaders can do. Educational Leadership, 60(8), 6–13.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Darling‐Hammond, L. (2007). Race, inequality and educational accountability: The irony of ‘No Child Left Behind’. Race Ethnicity and Education, 10(3), 245–260. doi:10.1080/13613320701503207
   Google Scholar
• Dever, M. T., & Carlston, G. (2009). No child left behind: Giving voice to teachers of young children. Journal of Educational Research & Policy Studies, 9(1), 61–79.
   Google Scholar
• Diamond, J. B. (2007). Where the rubber meets the road: Rethinking the connection between high-stakes testing policy and classroom instruction. Sociology of Education, 80(4), 285–313. doi:10.1177/003804070708000401
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diamond, J. B. (2012). Accountability policy, school organization, and classroom practice. Education and Urban Society, 44(2), 151–182. doi:10.1177/0013124511431569
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixson, A., Royal, C., & Henry, K. L. (2014). School reform and school choice. In R. Milner & K. Lomotey (Eds.), Handbook of urban education (pp. 474–503). New York, NY : Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Elfers, A. M., Plecki, M. L., & Knapp, M. S. (2006). Teacher mobility: Looking more closely at “The movers” within a state system. Peabody Journal of Education, 81(3), 94–127. doi:10.1207/S15327930pje8103_4
   Google Scholar
• Evans, C. M., Lee, J. C., & Thompson, W. C. (2016). First, do no harm?”: A framework for ethical decision-making in teacher evaluation. In K. Kappler-Hewitt & A. Amrein-Beardsley (Eds.), Student growth measures in policy and practice: Intended and unintended consequences of high-stakes teacher evaluations (pp. 169–188). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Figlio, D., & Ladd, H. (2015). School accountability and student achievement. In H. Ladd & M. Goertz (Eds.), Handbook on research in education finance and policy (pp. 194–210). New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Frick, W. C. (2013). Educational management turned on its head: Exploring a professional ethic for educational leadership (pp. 124–125). New York, NY: Peter Lang.
   Google Scholar
• Fusarelli, L. D. (2004). The potential impact of the no child left behind act on equity and diversity in American education. Educational Policy, 18(1), 71–94. doi:10.1177/0895904803260025
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou, S. N., Christou, C., Stavrinides, P., & Panaoura, G. (2002). Teacher attributions of student failure and teacher behavior toward the failing student. Psychology in the Schools, 39(5), 583–595. doi:10.1002/pits.10049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, S., Parmer, R., Chambers, L., Tourkin, S., & Lyter, D. (2011). Documentation for the 2008–09 teacher follow-up survey. (NCES 2011–304). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch
   Google Scholar
• Grissom, J. A. (2011). Can good principals keep teachers in disadvantaged schools? Linking principal effectiveness to teacher satisfaction and turnover in hard-to-staff environments. Teachers College Record, 113(11), 2552–2585.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grissom, J. A., & Loeb, S. (2011). Triangulating principal effectiveness: How perspectives of parents, teachers, and assistant principals identify the central importance of managerial skills. American Educational Research Journal, 48(5), 1091–1123. doi:10.3102/0002831211402663
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grissom, J. A., Nicholson-Crotty, S., & Harrington, J. R. (2014). Estimating the effects of No Child Left Behind on teachers’ work environments and job attitudes. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 36(4), 417–436.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guarino, C. M., Brown, A. B., & Wyse, A. E. (2011). Can districts keep good teachers in the schools that need them most? Economics of Education Review, 30(5), 962–979. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2011.04.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guarino, C. M., Santibanez, L., & Daley, G. A. (2006). Teacher recruitment and retention: A review of the recent empirical literature. Review of Educational Research, 76(2), 173. doi:10.3102/00346543076002173
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guarino, C. M., Santibanez, L., Daley, G. A., & Brewer, D. J. (2004). A review of the research literature on teacher recruitment and retention. Retrieved from Arlington, VA: http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/technical_reports/2005/RAND_TR164.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Hallinger, P. (2003). Leading educational change: Reflections on the practice of instructional and transformational leadership. Cambridge Journal of Education, 33(3), 329–352. doi:10.1080/0305764032000122005
   Google Scholar
• Hallinger, P. (2005). Instructional leadership and the school principal: A passing fancy that refuses to fade away. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 4(3), 221–239. doi:10.1080/15700760500244793
   Google Scholar
• Hallinger, P., & Heck, R. H. (2010). Leadership for learning: Does collaborative leadership make a difference in school improvement? Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 38(6), 654–678. doi:10.1177/1741143210379060
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanushek, E. A., Kain, J. F., & Rivkin, S. G. (2004). Why public schools lose teachers. The Journal of Human Resources, 39(2), 326–354. doi:10.2307/3559017
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanushek, E. A., & Rivkin, S. G. (2010). Constrained job matching: Does teacher job search harm disadvantaged urban schools? (No. w15816). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
   Google Scholar
• Hausknecht, J., & Holwerda, J. (2013). When does employee turnover matter? Dynamic member configurations, productive capacity, and collective performance. Organization Science, 24(1), 210–225. doi:10.1287/orsc.1110.0720
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hausknecht, J. P., Trevor, C. O., & Howard, M. J. (2009). Unit-level voluntary turnover rates and customer service quality: Implications of group cohesiveness, newcomer concentration, and size. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(4), 1068–1075. doi:10.1037/a0015898
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heavey, A. L., Holwerda, J. A., & Hausknecht, J. P. (2013). Causes and consequences of collective turnover: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(3), 412–453. doi:10.1037/a0032380
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hendricks, M. D. (2014). Does it pay to pay teachers more? Evidence from Texas. Journal of Public Economics, 109, 50–63.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirsch, E., Freitas, C., Church, K., & Villar, A. (2008). Massachusetts Teaching, Learning and Leading Survey: Creating school conditions where teachers stay and students thrive. Retrieved from Mass TeLLS website https://www.nysut.org/~/media/files/nysut/resources/2013/april/ted/mass_tlc_survey_finalreport.pdf?la=en
   Google Scholar
• Holme, J. J., Jabbar, H., Germain, E., & Dinning, J. (2018). Rethinking teacher turnover: longitudinal measures of instability in schools. Educational Researcher, 47(1), 62–75. doi:10.3102/0013189X17735813
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holme, J. J., & Rangel, V. S. (2012). Putting school reform in its place: Social geography, organizational social capital, and school performance. American Educational Research Journal, 49(2), 257–283. doi:10.3102/0002831211423316
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horng, E. L., Klasik, D., & Loeb, S. (2010). Principal’s time use and school effectiveness. American Journal of Education, 116(4), 491–523. doi:10.1086/653625
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulpia, H., Devos, G., & Rosseel, Y. (2009). The relationship between the perception of distributed leadership in secondary schools and teachers’ and teacher leaders’ job satisfaction and organizational commitment. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 20(3), 291–317. doi:10.1080/09243450902909840
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hursh, D. (2007). Assessing no child left behind and the rise of neoliberal education policies. American Educational Research Journal, 44(3), 493–518. doi:10.3102/0002831207306764
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Imazeki, J. (2002). Teacher attrition and mobility in urban districts: Evidence from Wisconsin. In C. Roellke & J. King Rice (Eds.), Fiscal policy in urban education (pp. 119–136). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Ingersoll, R. (2001a). Teacher turnover, teacher shortages, and the organization of schools. Seattle, Washington: University of Washington. Center for the study of teaching and policy.
   Google Scholar
• Ingersoll, R., & May, H. (2011a). Recruitment, retention and the minority teacher shortage. Philadelphia, PA. Retrieved from http://www.cpre.org/recruitment-retention-and-minority-teacher-shortage
   Google Scholar
• Ingersoll, R., Merrill, L., & May, H. (2016). Do accountability policies push teachers out? Educational Leadership, 73(8), 44–49.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingersoll, R. M. (2001b). Teacher turnover and teacher shortages: An organizational analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 38(3), 499–534. doi:10.3102/00028312038003499
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingersoll, R. M. (2002). The teacher shortage: A case of wrong diagnosis and wrong prescription. (survey addresses causes of teacher turnover). NASSP Bulletin, 86(631), 16. doi:10.1177/019263650208663103
   Google Scholar
• Ingersoll, R. M. (2003). Is there really a teacher shortage? Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy and The Consortium for Policy Research in Education. Retrieved from https://depts.washington.edu/ctpmail/PDFs/Shortage-RI-09-2003.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Ingersoll, R. M., & Collins, G. J. (2017). Accountability and control in American schools. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 49(1), 75–95. doi:10.1080/00220272.2016.1205142
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingersoll, R. M., & May, H. (2011b). The minority teacher shortage: Fact or fable? Phi Delta Kappan, 93(1), 62–65. doi:10.1177/003172171109300111
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingersoll, R. M., & May, H. (2012). The magnitude, destinations, and determinants of mathematics and science teacher turnover. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 34(4), 435–464.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingersoll, R. M., Merrill, L., & Stuckey, D. (2014). Seven trends: The transformation of the teaching force, updated April 2014. Retrieved from http://www.cpre.org/sites/default/files/workingpapers/1506_7trendsapril2014.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Jacob, B. A. (2005). Accountability, incentives and behavior: The impact of high-stakes testing in the Chicago public schools. Journal of Public Economics, 89(5), 761–796. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2004.08.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacob, B. A. (2007). The challenges of staffing urban schools with effective teachers. The Future of Children, 17(1), 129–153. doi:10.1353/foc.2007.0005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, S. M., Berg, J. H., & Donaldson, M. L. (2005). Who stays in teaching and why?: A review of the literature on teacher retention. Cambridge, MA: Project on the Next Generation of Teachers, Harvard Graduate School of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, S. M., & Birkeland, S. E. (2003). Pursuing a “Sense of Success”: New teachers explain their career decisions. American Educational Research Journal, 40(3), 581–617. doi:10.3102/00028312040003581
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, S. M., Kraft, M. A., & Papay, J. P. (2012). How context matters in high-need schools: The effects of teachers’ working conditions on their professional satisfaction and their students’ achievement. Teachers College Record, 114(10), 1–39.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappler Hewitt, K., & Amrein-Beardsley, A. (2016). Student growth measures in policy and practice intended and unintended consequences of high-stakes teacher evaluations. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Kelly III, J. P., & Scafidi, B. (2013). More than scores: An analysis of why and how parents choose private schools. Indianapolis, IN: Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice. Retrieved from https://www.edchoice.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/More-Than-Scores.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Kersaint, G., Lewis, J., Potter, R., & Meisels, G. (2007). Why teachers leave: Factors that influence retention and resignation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(6), 775–794. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2005.12.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirby, S. N., Berends, M., & Naftel, S. (1999). Supply and demand of minority teachers in Texas: Problems and prospects. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 21(1), 47–66. doi:10.3102/01623737021001047
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koretz, D. M. (2008). Measuring up: What educational testing really tells. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Koyama, J. P. (2012). Making failure matter: Enacting no child left behind’s standards, accountabilities, and classifications. Educational Policy, 26(6), 870–891. doi:10.1177/0895904811417592
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraft, M. A., Marinell, W. H., & Shen-Wei Yee, D. (2016). School organizational contexts, teacher turnover, and student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 53(5), 1411–1449. doi:10.3102/0002831216667478
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ladd, H. F. (2009). Teachers’ perceptions of their working conditions: How predictive of policy-relevant outcomes? Working Paper 33. National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research.
   Google Scholar
• Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). From the achievement gap to the education debt: Understanding achievement in U.S. schools. Educational Researcher, 35(7), 3–12. doi:10.3102/0013189X035007003
   Google Scholar
• Leukens, M. T., Lyter, D. M., Fox, E. E., & Chandler, K. (2004). Teacher attrition and mobility: Results from the teacher follow-up survey (pp. 2000–2001). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
   Google Scholar
• Loeb, S., Darling-Hammond, L., & Luczak, J. (2005). How teaching conditions predict teacher turnover in California schools. Peabody Journal of Education, 80(3), 44–70. doi:10.1207/s15327930pje8003_4
   Google Scholar
• Longo-Schmid, J. (2016). Teachers’ voices: Where policy meets practice. In K. Kappler-Hewitt & A. Amrein-Beardsley (Eds.), Student growth measures in policy and practice: Intended and unintended consequences of high-stakes teacher evaluations (pp. 49–72). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Lopez, R. (2013). High-stakes testing, demographic shifts, and failing schools: Why students can’t tell right from wrong. In W. C. Frick (Ed.), Educational management turned on its head: Exploring a professional ethic for educational leadership (pp. 183–187). New York, NY: Peter Lang.
   Google Scholar
• Malen, B., & Rice, J. K. (2016). School reconstitution as a turnaround strategy. In W. Mathis & T. Trujillo (Eds.), Learning from the federal market-based reforms (pp. 99–125). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Marks, H. M., & Printy, S. M. (2003). Principal leadership and school performance: An integration of transformational and instructional leadership. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39(3), 370–397. doi:10.1177/0013161X03253412
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez-Garcia, C., LaPrairie, K. N., & Slate, J. R. (2011). Accountability ratings of elementary schools: Student demographics matter. Current Issues in Education, 14(1), Retrieved from http://cie.asu.edu/
   Google Scholar
• Milner, H. R. (2012). Beyond a test score. Journal of Black Studies, 43(6), 693–718. doi:10.1177/0021934712442539
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milner, I. V., & Richard, H. (2013). Policy reforms and de-professionalization of teaching. Boulder, CO: National education policy center.
   Google Scholar
• Mintrop, H., & Sunderman, G. L. (2009). Predictable failure of federal sanctions-driven accountability for school improvement: And why we may retain it anyway. Educational Researcher, 38(5), 353–364. doi:10.3102/0013189X09339055
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murnane, R., Singer, J., & Willett, J. (1989). The influences of salaries and” opportunity costs” on teachers’ career choices: Evidence from North Carolina. Harvard Educational Review, 59(3), 325–347. doi:10.17763/haer.59.3.040r1583036775um
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murnane, R. J., & Olsen, R. J. (1989). The effect of salaries and opportunity costs on duration in teaching: Evidence from Michigan. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 71, 347–352. doi:10.2307/1926983
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthén Linda, K., & Muthén Bengt, O. (2015). Mplus user’s guide (Vol. 7). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
   Google Scholar
• National Center for Education Statistics. (2005). The condition of education 2005 (NCES Rep. No. 2005–094). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
   Google Scholar
• National Center of Education Statistics (NCES). (1991). 1987–88 Schools and staffing survey user’s manual. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/sass/pdf/SASS8788.pdf
   Google Scholar
• National Policy Board for Educational Administration. (2015). Professional standards for educational leaders 2015. Reston, VA: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Nichols, S. L., & Berliner, D. C. (2007). Collateral damage: How high-stakes testing corrupts America’s schools. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Education Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ondrich, J., Pas, E., & Yinger, J. (2008). The determinants of teacher attrition in upstate New York. Public Finance Review, 36(1), 112–144. doi:10.1177/1091142106294716
   Google Scholar
• Orfield, G., & Lee, C. (2005). Why segregation matters: Poverty and educational inequality. The Civil Rights Project. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 489186)
   Google Scholar
• Peck, J. (2015). (Neo)Liberalism, popular media, and the political struggle for the future of US public education. European Journal of Communication, 30(5), 587–603. doi:10.1177/0267323115597853
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podolsky, A., Kini, T., Bishop, J., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2016). Solving the teacher shortage: How to attract and retain excellent educators. Palo Alto, CA. Retrieved from https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/product/solving-teacher-shortage
   Google Scholar
• Podsakoff, N. P., LePine, J. A., & LePine, M. A. (2007). Differential challenge stressor-hindrance stressor relationships with job attitudes, turnover intentions, turnover, and withdrawal behavior: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(2), 438. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.2.438
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell, D., Higgins, H. J., Aram, R., & Freed, A. (2009). Impact of no child left behind on curriculum and instruction in rural schools. Rural Educator, 31(1), 19–28.
   Google Scholar
• Ravitch, D. (2002). Testing and accountability, historically considered. In W. M. Evers & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), School accountability (pp. 9–21). Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University.
   Google Scholar
• Redding, C., & Smith, T. M. (2016). Easy in, easy out. American Educational Research Journal, 53(4), 1086–1125. doi:10.3102/0002831216653206
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rentner, D. S., Scott, C., Kober, N., Chudowsky, N., Chudowsky, V., Joftus, S., & Zabala, D. (2006). From the capital to the classroom: Year 4 of the no child left behind act. Washington, DC: Center on Education Policy.
   Google Scholar
• Rhodes, J. H. (2015). Learning citizenship? How state education reforms affect parents’ political attitudes and behavior. Political Behavior, 37(1), 181–220. doi:10.1007/s11109-014-9270-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice, B., & Malen, B. (2016). When theoretical models meet school realities: Educator responses to student growth measures in an incentive pay program. In K. Kappler-Hewitt & A. Amrein-Beardsley (Eds.), Student growth measures in policy and practice: Intended and unintended consequences of high-stakes teacher evaluations (pp. 49–72). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Rinke, C. R. (2011). Career trajectories of urban teachers: A continuum of perspectives, participation, and plans shaping retention in the educational system. Urban Education, 46(4), 639–662. doi:10.1177/0042085911399790
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothstein, R., Jacobsen, R., & Wilder, T. (2008). Grading education: Getting accountability right. Washington, DC, New York, NY: Economic Policy Institute; New York: Teachers College Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sahlberg, P. (2010). Rethinking accountability in a knowledge society. Journal of Educational Change, 11(1), 45–61. doi:10.1007/s10833-008-9098-2
   Google Scholar
• Santoro, D. (2011b). Teaching’s conscientious objectors: Principled leavers of high-poverty schools. Teacher’s College Record, 112(12), 2670–2704.
   Google Scholar
• Santoro, D. (2013). Teacher demoralization and teacher burnout: Why the distinction matters. American Journal of Education, 119(3), 346–347.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santoro, D. A. (2011a). Good teaching in difficult times: Demoralization in the pursuit of good work. American Journal of Education, 118(1), 1–23. doi:10.1086/662010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scafidi, B., Sjoquist, D. L., & Stinebrickner, T. R. (2007). Race, poverty, and teacher mobility. Economics of Education Review, 26(2), 145–159. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2005.08.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoen, L., & Fusarelli, L. D. (2008). Innovation, NCLB, and the fear factor: The challenge of leading 21st-Century schools in an era of accountability. Educational Policy, 22(1), 181–203. doi:10.1177/0895904807311291
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sebastian, J., & Allensworth, E. (2012). The influence of principal leadership on classroom instruction and student learning: A study of mediated pathways to learning. Educational Administration Quarterly, 48(4), 626–663. doi:10.1177/0013161X11436273
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, J. (1997). Teacher retention and attrition in public schools: Evidence from SASS91. The Journal of Educational Research, 91(2), 81. doi:10.1080/00220679709597525
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, J., Leslie, J. M., Spybrook, J. K., & Ma, X. (2012). Are principal background and school processes related to teacher job satisfaction? A multilevel study using schools and staffing survey 2003–04. American Educational Research Journal, 49(2), 200–230. doi:10.3102/0002831211419949
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shin, H. (1995). Estimating future teacher supply: Any policy implications for educational reform. International Journal of Educational Reform, 4(4), 422–433. doi:10.1177/105678799500400404
   Google Scholar
• Simon, N. S., & Johnson, S. M. (2013). Teacher turnover in high-poverty schools: What we know and can do. Teachers College Record, 117, 1–36.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2010). Teacher self-efficacy and teacher burnout: A study of relations. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(4), 1059–1069.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2011). Teacher job satisfaction and motivation to leave the teaching profession: Relations with school context, feeling of belonging, and emotional exhaustion. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(6), 1029–1038. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2011.04.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, K. B., & Larimer, C. W. (2016). The public policy theory primer. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, T. M., & Ingersoll, R. M. (2004). What are the effects of induction and mentoring on beginning teacher turnover? American Educational Research Journal, 41(3), 681–714.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Somech, A., & Ron, I. (2007). Promoting organizational citizenship behavior in schools: The impact of individual and organizational characteristics. Educational Administration Quarterly, 43(1), 38–66. doi:10.1177/0013161X0629125
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spillane, J. P., Parise, L. M., & Sherer, J. Z. (2011). Organizational routines as coupling mechanisms: Policy, school administration, and the technical core. American Educational Research Journal, 48(3), 586. doi:10.3102/0002831210385102
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stillings, C. (2005). Charter schools and no child left behind: Sacrificing autonomy for accountability. The Journal of Education, 186(2), 51–70. doi:10.1177/002205740618600206
   Google Scholar
• Stinebrickner, T. R. (1998). An empirical investigation of teacher attrition. Economics of Education Review, 17(2), 127–136. doi:10.1016/S0272-7757(97)00023-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stinebrickner, T. R. (2002). An analysis of occupational change and departure from the labor force. Journal of Human Resources, 37(1), 192–216. doi:10.2307/3069608
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Superfine, B. M. (2005). The Politics of accountability: The rise and fall of goals 2000. American Journal of Education, 112(1), 10–43. doi:10.1086/444513
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Superfine, B. M., Gottlieb, J. J., & Smylie, M. A. (2012). The expanding federal role in teacher workforce policy. Educational Policy, 26(1), 58–78. doi:10.1177/0895904811435722
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tidwell, T. (2014). Caring less? Teacher experiences and No Child Left Behind legislation: A grounded theory study. Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest LLC.
   Google Scholar
• Tourkin, S., Thomas, T., Swaim, N., Cox, S., Parmer, R., Jackson, B., … Zhang, B. (2010). Documentation for the 2007–08 Schools and Staffing Survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Urick, A. (2012). To what extent do typologies of school leaders across the U.S. predict teacher attrition? A multilevel latent class analysis of principals and teachers (Doctoral Dissertation), University of Texas at San Antonio. Ann Arbor, MI: ProQuest LLC.
   Google Scholar
• Urick, A. (2016). The influence of typologies of school leaders on teacher retention. Journal of Educational Administration, 54(4), 434–468. doi:10.1108/JEA-08-2014-0090
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Urick, A., & Bowers, A. J. (2014). What are the different types of principals across the United States? A latent class analysis of principal perception of leadership. Educational Administration Quarterly, 50(1), 96–134. doi:10.1177/0013161X13489019
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(4), 548. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williamson, B., & Morgan, J. (2009). Educational reform, enquiry-based learning and the re-professionalisation of teachers. The Curriculum Journal, 20(3), 287–304. doi:10.1080/09585170903195894
   Google Scholar
• Wong, M., Cook, T. D., & Steiner, P. M. (2015). Adding design elements to improve time series designs: No child left behind as an example of causal pattern-matching. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 8(2), 245–279. doi:10.1080/19345747.2013.878011
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, V. C., Wing, C., Martin, D., & Krishnamachari, A. (2018). Did states use implementation discretion to reduce the stringency of NCLB? Evidence from a database of state regulations. Educational Researcher, 47(1), 9–33. doi:10.3102/0013189X17743230
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wronowski, M. L. (2017). Filling the void: A grounded theory approach to addressing teacher recruitment and retention in urban schools. Education and Urban Society, 50(6), 548–574.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wronowski, M. L., & Urick, A. (2019a). Teacher and school predictors of teacher deprofessionalization and demoralization in the United States. Educational Policy. doi:10.1177/0895904819843598
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wronowski, M. L., & Urick, A. (2019b). Examining the relationship of teacher perception of accountability and assessment policies on teacher turnover during NCLB. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 27, 86.
   Google Scholar