Microbial quality of rainwater supplies in developed countries: a review

References

• Albrechtsen , H. J. 2002 . Microbiological investigation of rainwater and greywater collected for toilet flushing . Water Sci. Technol. , 46 : 311 – 316 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bannister , R. , Westwood , J. and McNeill , A. Investigation of microbiological and chemical water quality in rainwater tanks in Victoria, Melbourne Water ECO science report no. 139/97 – Department of Natural Resources and Environment, 1997. Cited by Sinclair et al., 2005
   Google Scholar
• Benin , A. L. , Benson , R. F. and Besser , R. E. 2002 . Trends in Legionnaires disease, 1980 – 1998: declining mortality and new patterns of diagnosis . Clin. Infect. Dis. , 35 : 1039 – 1046 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birks , R. , Colbourne , J. , Hills , S. and Hobson , R. 2004 . Microbiological water quality in a large in-building, water recycling facility . Water Sci. Technol. , 50 : 165 – 172 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Che , W. , Wang , H. , Li , J. and Meng , G. 2001 . The quality and major influencing factors of runoff in Beijing's urban area . Proceedings of the 10th International Rainwater Catchment Systems Conference (Rainwater International) . 2001 , Mannheim, Germany.
   Google Scholar
• Construction Industry Research and Information Association . 2003 . Model agreements for sustainable water management systems. review of existing legislation , London : CIRIA . RP 664
   Google Scholar
• Coombes , P. J. , Kuczera , G. and Kalma , J. D. 2000 . Rainwater quality from roofs, tanks and hot water systems at Figtree Place . Proceedings of the 3rd International Hydrology and Water Resource Symposium . 2000 , Perth, Australia.
   Google Scholar
• Coombes , P. J. , Kuczera , G. and Kalma , J. D. 2002 . Rainwater quality from roofs, tanks and hot water systems at Figtree Place . Proceedings of the 3rd International Hydrological and Water Resources Symposium . 2002 , Perth, Australia. pp. 152 – 157 .
   Google Scholar
• Craven , S. E. , Stern , N. J. , Line , E. , Bailey , J. S. , Cox , N. A. and Fedorka-Cray , P. 2000 . Determination of the incidence of Salmonella spp., Campylobacter spp., and Clostridium perfringens in wild birds near broiler chicken houses by sampling intestinal droppings . Avian Dis. , 44 : 715 – 720 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Day , M. M. 2002 . A report on ‘Freerain’, the rainwater recycling system , Report for Gusto Construction Ltd., Severn Trent Water and the Environment Agency .
   Google Scholar
• Environmental Agency . 2003 . Harvesting Rainwater for Domestic Uses: An Information Guide , Bristol : EA .
   Google Scholar
• EC . 1975 . Bathing Water Directive , European Community . 76/160/EEC Cited by CIRIA, 2003
   Google Scholar
• EC . 2006 . Directive 2006/7/EC of The European Parliament and of The Council of 15th February 2006 concerning the management of bathing water quality and repealing Directive 76/160/EEC . Official J. European Union , L64 : 37 – 51 .
   Google Scholar
• Evans , C. A. , Coombes , P. J. and Dunstan , R. H. 2006 . Wind, rain and bacteria: The effect of weather on the microbial composition of roof-harvested rainwater . Water Res. , 40 : 37 – 44 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fewtrell , L. , Godfree , A. , Jones , F. , Kay , D. and Merrett , H. 1994 . Pathogenic Microorganisms in Temperate Environmental Waters , Tresaith, , UK : Samara Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Fewtrell , L. , Kay , D. , Matthews , I. and Smith , K. “ Rainwater harvesting – an HIA of rainwater harvesting in the UK ” . In A guide to the health impact assessment of flooding and sustainable water management , London : IWA Publishing . (in press)
   Google Scholar
• Friend , M. and Franson , J. C. 1999 . Field Manual of Wildlife Disease 2 , US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey .
   Google Scholar
• Förster , J. 1999 . Variability of roof runoff quality . Water Sci. Technol. , 39 : 137 – 144 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner , T. , Baisden , J. and Millar , G. 2004 . Rainwater first flush devices – are they effective? . Sustainable Water in the Urban Environment, 2004 Conference . August 30 – 31 2004 , Brisbane, Australia.
   Google Scholar
• Gautsch , S. , Odermatt , P. , Burnens , A. P. , Bille , J. and Ewald , R. 2000 . The role of common starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) in the epidemiology of bacterial, potentially pathogenic, disease agents . Schweizer Archiv fur Tierheilkunde , 142 : 165 – 172 . In German
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghanayem , M. 2001 . Environmental considerations with respect to rainwater harvesting . Proceedings of the 10th International Rainwater Catchment Systems Conference (Rainwater International) . 2001 , Mannheim, Germany.
   Google Scholar
• Girdwood , R. W.A. , Fricker , C. R. , Munro , D. , Shedden , C. B. and Monaghan , P. 1985 . The incidence and significance of salmonella carriage by gulls (Larus spp.) in Scotland . J. Hygiene , 95 : 229 – 241 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Health Canada . 2006 . Bacterial waterborne pathogens – current and emerging organisms of concern , Ontario, , Canada : Health Canada .
   Google Scholar
• Holländer , R. , Bullermann , M. , Groß , C. , Hartung , H. , König , K. , Lücke , F. -K. and Nolde , E. 1996 . Microbiological and hygienic aspects of the use of rainwater as process water for toilet flushing, garden irrigation and laundering . Gesundheitswesen , 58 : 288 – 293 . In German
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kay , D. and Edwards , A. C. 2003 . Evaluation of bacterial loads from farmyard drainage systems , Wales : Centre for Research into Environment and Health . Report to the Scottish Executive
   Google Scholar
• Lightfoot , D. 2004 . “ Salmonella and other enteric organisms ” . In Waterborne zoonoses. Identification, Causes and Control , Edited by: Cotruvo , J. A. , Dufour , A. , Rees , G. , Bartram , J. , Carr , R. , Cliver , D. O. , Craun , G. F. , Fayer , R. and Gannon , V. P. J. London : IWA Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Lye , D. J. 1987 . Bacterial levels in cistern water systems of Northern Kentucky . Water Res. Bull. , 23 : 1063 – 1068 .
   Google Scholar
• Mead , P. S. , Slutsker , L. , Dietz , V. , McCraig , L. F. , Bresee , J. S. , Shapiro , C. , Griffin , P. M. and Tauxe , R. V. 1999 . Food-related illness and death in the United States . Emerging Infect. Dis. , 5 : 607 – 625 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Market Transformation Programme . 2007 . Rainwater and greywater: review of water quality standards and recommendations for the UK , Market Transformation Programme .
   Google Scholar
• Pond , K. 2005 . Water Recreation and Disease. Plausibility of Associated Infections: Acute Effects, Sequelae and Mortality , London : IWA Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Savichtcheva , O. and Okabe , S. 2006 . Alternative indicators of fecal pollution: relations with pathogens and conventional indicators, current methodologies for direct pathogen monitoring and future application perspectives . Water Res. , 40 : 2463 – 2476 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savill , M. G. , Hudson , J. A. , Ball , A. A. , Klena , J. D. , Scholes , P. , Whyte , R. J. , McCormick , R. E. and Jankovic , D. 2001 . Enumeration of Campylobacter in New Zealand recreational and drinking waters . J. Appl. Microbio. , 91 : 38 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shirlaw , J. F. and Iyer , S. G. 1937 . A note on the variety of Salmonella enteritidis isolated from pidgeons (sic) . Indian J. Vet. Sci. , 7 : 231 Cited by Girdwood et al., 1985
   Google Scholar
• Simmons , G. , Hope , V. , Lewis , G. , Whitmore , J. and Gao , W. 2001 . Contamination of potable roof-collected rainwater in Auckland, New Zealand . Water Res. , 35 : 1518 – 1524 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinclair , M. I. , Leder , K. and Chapman , H. 2005 . “ Public health aspects of rainwater tanks in urban Australia ” . In CRC for Water Quality and Treatment; Occasional Paper 10 , Australia : Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment .
   Google Scholar
• Thomas , P. R. and Greene , G. R. 1993 . Rainwater quality from different roof catchments . Water Sci. Technol. , 28 : 291 – 299 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thurman , R. 1995 . Evaluation of rainwater stored in collection tanks . Australian Microbiol. , March, 20–22. Cited by Sinclair et al., 2005
   Google Scholar
• Tuffley , R. E. and Holbeche , J. D. 1980 . Isolation of Mycobacterium avium – M. intracellulare – M. scrofulaceum complex from tank water in Queensland, Australia . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 39 : 48 – 53 . Cited by Sinclair et al. (2005)
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uba , B. N. and Aghogho , O. 2000 . Rainwater quality from different roof catchments in the Port Harcourt district, Rivers State, Nigeria . Aqua , 49 : 281 – 288 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United States Environmental Protection Agency . 1992 . Guidelines for Water Reuse , Ohio : USEPA . EPA/625/R-92/004
   Google Scholar
• Waldenström , J. , Broman , T. , Carlsson , I. , Hasselquist , D. , Acherberg , R. P. , Wagenaar , J. A. and Olsen , B. 2002 . Prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni, Campylobacter lari, and Campylobacter coli in different ecological guilds and taxa of migrating birds . Appl. Environ. Microbiol. , 68 : 5911 – 5917 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 1998 . Health Guidelines for the use of Wastewater in Agriculture and Aquaculture , Geneva, , Switzerland : WHO . Technical Report Series 778
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 2003 . Guidelines for Safe Recreational Water Environments , Vol. 1 , Geneva, , Switzerland : WHO . Coastal and fresh waters
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 2004 . Guidelines for drinking-water quality. , Third edition , Vol. 1 , Geneva, , Switzerland : WHO . Recommendations
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 2006 . Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater , Geneva, , Switzerland : WHO .
   Google Scholar
• Water Regulations Advisory Scheme . 1999 . Reclaimed Water Systems WRAS, , UK Cited by CIRIA, 2003
   Google Scholar
• Yaziz , M. , Gunting , H. , Sapari , N. and Ghazali , A. W. 1989 . Variations in rainwater quality from roof catchments . Water Res. , 23 : 761 – 765 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar