Profiling poly-substance use typologies in a multi-site cohort of illicit opioid and other drug users in Canada–a latent class analysis

References

• Agrawal A, Lynskey MT, Madden PAF, Bucholz KK, Heath AC. A latent class analysis of illicit drug abuse/dependence: Results from the National Epidemiological survey on alcohol and related conditions. Addiction 2006; 102: 94–104
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett SP, Gross SR, Garand I, Pihl RO. Patterns of simultaneous polysubstance use in Canadian rave attendees. Substance use & misuse 2005; 40: 1525–1537
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumer E, Lauritsen J, Rosenfeld R, Wright R. The influence of crack cocaine on robbery, burglary and homicide rates: A cross-city longitudinal analysis. Journal of Research on Crimes & Deliquencies 1998; 35(3)316–340
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Best D, Sidwell C, Gossop M, Harris J, Strang J. Crime and expenditure amongst polydrug misusers seeking treatment: The connection between prescribed methadone and crack use, and criminal involvement. British Journal of Criminology 2001; 41: 119–126
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bickel WK, Kelly TH. The relationship of stimulus control to the treatment of substance abuse. Learning Factors in Substance Abuse, BA Ray. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 1988; 122–140
   Google Scholar
• Byqvist S. Patterns of drug use among drug misusers in Sweden. Gender differences. Substance use & misuse 2007; 41: 1817–1835
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cicero TJ, Inciardi JA, Munoz A. Trends in abuse of Oxycontin and other opioid analgesics in the United States: 2002–2004. Journal of Pain 2005; 6: 662–672
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coffin P, Galea S, Ahern J, Leon A, Vlahov D, Tardiff K. Opiates, cocaine and alcohol combinations in accidental drug overdose deaths in New York City, 1990–98. Addiction 2003; 98(6)739–747
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Compton W, Volkow N. Major increases in opioid analgesic abuse in the United States: Concerns and strategies. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 2006; 81: 103–107
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Condelli WS, Fairbank JA, Dennis ML, Rachal JV. Cocaine use by clients in methadone programs: Significance, scope, and behavioral interventions. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 1991; 8(4)203–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cone EJ, Fant RV, Rohay JM, Caplan YH, Ballina M, Reder RF, Spyker D, Haddox JD. Oxycodone involvement in drug abuse deaths: II. Evidence for toxic multiple drug–drug interactions. Journal of Analytical Toxicology 2004; 28: 616–624
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crabbe JC. Genetic contribution to addiction. Annual Review of Psychology 2002; 53: 435–462
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’Aunno T, Vaughn TE. Variations in methadone treatment practices. Results from a national study. Journal of American Medical Associaion 1992; 267(2)253–258
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Vos JW, Ufkes JGR, van Brussel GHA, van den Brink W. Craving despite extreme high methadone dosage. Drug Alcohol Dependence 1996; 40(3)181–184
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillon P, Copeland J, Jansen K. Patterns of use and harms associated with non-medical ketamine use. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 2003; 69: 23–28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer B, Kirst M, Rehm J, Marsh D, Bondy S, Tyndall M. The phenomenon of so-called 'other drug use' among opiate addicts in the North American context: Evidence, consequences, questions. Beigebrauch: Offene Grenzen der Substitution, B Westermann, GU Bellman, C Jellinek. Deutscher Studien Verlag, Beltz 2000b; 95–118
   Google Scholar
• Fischer B, Medved W, Gliksman L, Rehm J. Illicit opiates in Toronto: A profile of current users. Addiction Research 1999; 7(5)377–415
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer B, Rehm J. Illicit opioid use in the 21st century: Witnessing a paradigm shift?. Addiction 2007a; 102(4)499–501
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer B, Rehm J. Understanding the parameters of non-medical use of prescription drugs: moving beyond mere numbers. Addiction 2007b; 102(12)1931–1932
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer B, Rehm J, Blitz-Miller T. Injection drug use and preventive measures: a comparison of Canadian and Western European jurisdictions over time. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2000a; 162(12)1709–1713
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer B, Rehm J, Brissette S, Brochu S, Bruneau J, el-Guebaly N, Noel L, Tyndall MW, Wild C, Mun P, et al. Illicit opioid use in Canada–Comparing social, health and drug use characteristics of untreated users in five cities (OPICAN Study). Journal of Urban Health 2005a; 82(2)250–266
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer B, Monga N, Manzoni P. Differences between co-users of cocaine and crack among Canadian illicit opioid users. Sucht 2005b; 51(4)217–224
   Google Scholar
• Fischer B, Rehm J, Patra J, Firestone-Cruz M. Changes in illicit opioid use across Canada. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2006a; 175(11)1385–1387
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischer B, Rehm J, Patra J, Kalousek K, Haydon E, Tyndall M, El-Guebaly N. Crack across Canada: Comparing crack users and crack non-users in a Canadian multi-city cohort of illicit opioid users. Addiction 2006b; 101(12)1760–1770
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank B, Galea J. Cocaine trends and other drug trends in New York City, 1986–94. Journal of Addictive Disease 1996; 15: 1–12
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frick U, Rehm J, Kovacic S, Ammann J, Uchtenhagen A. A prospective cohort study on orally administered heroin substitution for severely addicted opioid users. Addiction 2006; 101(11)1631–9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gesundheit Bundesamt für. Handbuch Heroingestützte Behandlung. Richtlinien, Empfehlungen, Information. Bundesamt für Gesundheit, Bern 2000
   Google Scholar
• Gonzalez G, Sevaroni K, Sofuoglu M, Poling J, Oliveto A, Gonsai K, George TP, Kosten TR. Tiagabine increasesCornish & kalivas, 2005 cocaine-free urines in cocaine-dependent methadone-treated patients: results from a randomized pilot study. Addiction 2003; 98: 1625–1632
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gossop M, Marsden J, Stewart D. Dual dependence: assessment of dependence upon alcohol and illicit drugs, and the relationship of alcohol dependence among drug misusers to patterns of drinking, illicit drug use and health problems. Addiction 2002; 97: 169–178
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grella CE, Anglin MD, Wugalter SE. Cocaine and crack use and HIV risk behaviours among high-risk methadone maintenance clients. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 1995; 37: 15–21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grella CE, Anglin MD, Wugalter SE. Patterns and predictors of cocaine and crack use by clients in standard and enhanced methadone maintenance treatment. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse 1997; 23: 15–42
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall W, Degenhardt L, Lynskey M. Opioid overdose mortality in Australia, 1964–1997: Birth-cohort trends. Medical Journal of Australia 1999; 171: 34–37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall W, Lynskey M, Degenhardt L. Trends in opiate-related deaths in the United Kingdom and Australia, 1985–1995. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 2000; 52: 71–77
   Google Scholar
• Haney M, Hart CL, Foltin RW. Effects of baclofen on cocaine self-administration: Opioid- and nonopioid-dependent volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006; 31(8)1814–1821
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison L. The validity of self-reported data on drug use. Journal Of Drug Issues 1995; 25(1)91–111
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartel DM, Schoenbaum EE, Selwyn PA, Kline J, Davenny K, Klein RS, Friedland GH. Heroin use during methadone maintenance treatment: The importance of methadone dose and cocaine use. American Journal of Public Health 1995; 85: 83–88
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hausser D, Kubler D, Dubois-Arber F. Characteristics of heroin and cocaine users unknown to treatment agencies. Results from the Swiss Hidden Population Study. Sozia- und Präventivmed 1999; 44: 222–232
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Haydon E, Fischer B. Crack use as a public health problem in Canada–Call for an evaluation of “safer crack use kits. Canadian Journal of Public Health 2005; 96: 185–188
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inciardi JA, Surratt HL, Kurtz SP, Cicero TJ. Mechanisms of prescription drug diversion among drug-involved club- and street-based populations. Pain Medicine 2007; 8(2)171–183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joe GW, Simpson DD. HIV risks, gender, and cocaine use among opiate users. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 1995; 37: 23–28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Judd A, Hutchinson S, Wadd S, Hickman M, Taylor A, Jones S, Parry JV, Cameron S, Rhodes T, Ahmed S, et al. Prevalence of, and risk factors for, hepatitis C virus infection among recent initiates to injecting in London and Glasgow: Cross sectional analysis. Journal of Viral Hepatitis 2005; 12(6)655–62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kandel DB, Yamaguchi K, Chen K. Stages of progression in drug involvement from adolescence to adulthood: Further evidence for the Gateway Theory. Journal of Studies on Alcohol 1992; 53(5)447–457
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kandel DB, Yamaguchi K. From beer to crack: Developmental patterns of drug involvement. American Journal of Public Health 1993; 83(6)851–855
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaufman E. The abuse of multiple drugs: I. Definition, classification and extent of problem. American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse 1976; 3(2)279–292
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kenna GA, Nielsen DM, Mello P, Schiesl A, Swift RM. Pharmacotherapy of dual substance abuse and dependence. CNS Drugs 2007; 21(3)213–237
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerr T, Tyndall M, Li K, Montaner J, Wood E. Safer injection facility use and syringe sharing in injection drug users. Lancet 2005; 366(9482)316–318
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer CY. Extension of multiple range tests to group means with unequal numbers of replications. Biometrics 1956; 12: 309–310
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreek MJ. Opiate and cocaine addictions: Challenge for pharmacotherapies. Pharmacology Biochemistry & Behavior 1997; 57(3)551–569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauzon P, Vincelette J, Bruneau J, Lamothe F, Lachance N, Brabant M, Soto J. Illicit use of methadone among i.v. drug users in Montreal. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 1994; 11: 457–461
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leri F, Stewart J. Drug-induced reinstatement to heroin and cocaine seeking: A rodent model of relapse in polydrug use. Experimental & Clinical Psychopharmacology 2001; 9: 297–306
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leri F, Bruneau J, Stewart J. Understanding polydrug use: Reviewing heroin and cocaine co-use. Addiction 2003; 98(1)7–22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leri F, Stewart J, Fischer B, Rehm J, Marsh DC, Brissette S, Bruneau J, El-Guebaly N, Noel L, Tyndall MW, et al. Patterns of opioid and cocaine co-use: A descriptive study in a Canadian sample of untreated opioid-dependent individuals. Experimental & Clinical Psychopharmacology 2005; 13(4)303–310
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo Y, Mendell N, Rubin D. Testing the number of components in a normal mixure. Biometrika, 2001; 88: 767–778
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynskey MT, Agrawal A, Bucholz KK, Nelson EC, Madden PA, Todorov AA, Grant JD, Martin NG, Health AC. Subtypes of illicit drug users: A latent class analysis of data from an Austrlian Twin sample. Twin Research & Human Genetics 2006; 9(4)523–530
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCutcheon A. Latent class analysis. Sage, Newbury Park, CA 1987
   Google Scholar
• Miller CL, Kerr T, Strathdeel SA, Li, Kathy, Wood E. Factors associated with premature mortality among young injection drug users in Vancouver. Harm Reduction, Journal 2007; 4(1)
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Millson P, Myers T, Calzavara L, Wallace E, Major C, Degani N. Regional variation in HIV prevalence and risk behaviours in Ontario injection drug users (IDU). Canadian Journal of Public Health 2003; 94(6)431–435
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milloy MJ, Wood E, Small W, Tyndall M, Lai C, Montaner J, Kerr T. Incarceration experiences in a cohort of active injection drug users. Drug Alcohol Rev 2008; 31: 1–7
   Google Scholar
• Monga N, Rehm J, Fischer B, Brissette S, Bruneau J, El-Guebaly N, Noel L, Tyndall M, Wild C, Leri F, et al. Using latent class analysis (LCA) to analyze patterns of drug use in a population of illegal opioid users. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 2007; 88: 1–8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muthen LK, Muthen BO. Mplus User's Guide4th. Muthen & Muthen, Los Angeles, CA 2006
   Google Scholar
• Nahas G. Keep off the grass. P.S. Eriksson, Middlebury, VT 1990
   Google Scholar
• Nylund KL, Asparouhov T, Muthen B. Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling. A monte carlo simulation study. 2007, Available from: http://www.statmodel.com/download/LCA_tech11_nylund_v83.pdf [accessed on April 30, 2007]
   Google Scholar
• Oetting ER, Beauvais R. Adolescent drug use: Findings of national and local surveys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1990; 58: 385–394
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Operario D, Choi KH, Chu PL, McFarland W, Secura GM, Behel S, MacKellar D, Valleroy L. Prevalence and correlates of substance use among young Asian Pacific Islander men who have sex with men. Preventive Science 2006; 7: 19–29
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patterson TL, Semple SJ, Zians JK, Strathdee SA. Methamphetamine-using HIV-positive men who have sex with men: Correlates of polydrug use. Journal of Urban Health 2005; 82(Suppl. 1)126
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plomin R, Crabbe J. DNA. Psychology Bulletin 2000; 126: 806–828
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raftery AE. Bayesian model selection in social research (with discussion by Andrew Gelman, Donald B Rubin and Robert M Hauser)., PV Marsden. Social Methodology, Blackwells, Oxford 1995; 111–196
   Google Scholar
• Rawson RA, McCann MJ, Hasson AJ, Ling W. Cocaine abuse among methadone maintenance patients: Are there effective treatment strategies?. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 1994; 26(2)129–36
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross J, Darke S. The nature of benzodiazepine dependence among heroin users in Sydney, Australia. Addiction 2000; 95: 1785–1793
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy E, Haley N, Leclerc P, Boivin JF, Cedras L, Vincelette J. Risk factors for hepatitis C virus infection among street youths. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2001; 165(5)557–60
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rowlett JK, Negus SS, Shippenberg TS, Mello NK, Walsh SL, Spealman RD. Combined cocaine and opioid abuse: From neurobiology to the clinic. NIDA Research Monographs 1997; 178: 55–57
   Google Scholar
• Schifano F, Oyefeso A, Corkery J, Cobain K, Jambert-Gray R, Martinotti G, Ghodse A. Death rates from ecstasy (MDMA, MDA) and polydrug use in England and Wales 1996–2002. Human Psychopharmacology 2003; 18: 519–524
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schottenfeld RS, O’Malley S, Abdul-Salaam K, O’Connor PG. Decline in intravenous drug use among treatment-seeking opiate users. Journal of Substance Abuse & Treatment 1993; 10: 5–10
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schutz CG, Vlahov D, Anthony JC, Graham NM. Comparison of self-reported injection frequencies for past 30 days and 6 months among intravenous drug users. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 1994; 47(2)191–195
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shearer J, Gowing L. Pharmacotherapies for problematic psychostimulant use: a review of current research. Drug and Alcohol Review 2004; 23(2)203–211
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sofuoglu M, Kosten TR. Novel approaches to the treatment of cocaine addiction. CNS Drugs 2005; 19(1)13–25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SPSS Inc. SPSS System for Windows, Version 15. Chicago, IL 2006–2007
   Google Scholar
• Stallings MC, Corley RP, Hewitt JK, Krauter KS, Lessem JM, Mikulich SK, Rhee SH, Smolen A, Young SE, Crowley TJ. A genome-wide search for quantitative trait loci influencing substance dependence vulnerability in adolescence. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 2003; 70: 295–307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stallings MC, Corley RP, Hewitt JK, Krauter KS, Lessem JM, Mikulich SK, Rhee SH, Smolen A, Young SE, Crowley TJ. A genome-wide search for quantitative trait loci influencing substance dependence vulnerability in adolescence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2003; 70: 295–307
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoltz JA, Wood E, Small W, Li K, Tyndall M, Montaner J, Kerr T. Changes in injecting practices associated with the use of a medically supervised safer injection facility. Journal of Public Health 2007; 29(1)35–39
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suh JJ, Pettinati HM, Kampman KM, et al. The status of disulfiram: A half of a century later. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology 2006; 26(3)290–302
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyndall MW, Currie S, Johnston C, Li K, O'Shaughnessy M, Schechter MT. Changing patterns of drug use: Vancouver, Canada–1996 to 1999 (abstract 347P). Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases 2000; 11(Suppl B)66B
   Google Scholar
• Tyndall MW, Currie S, Spittal P, Li K, Wood E, O'shaughnessy M, Schechter M. Intensive injection cocaine use as the primary risk factor in the Vancouver HIV-1 epidemic. Aids 2003; 17: 887–893
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uhl GR, Liu QR, Walther D, Hess J, Naiman D. Polysubstance abuse vulnerability genes: Genome scans for association using 1,004 subjects and 1,494 single-nucleotide polymorphisms. American Journal of Human Genetics 2001; 69: 1290–1300
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van den Brink W, van Ree JM. Pharmacological treatments for heroin and cocaine addiction. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2003; 13(6)476–87
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood E, Tyndall MW, Qui Z, Zhang R, Montaner JS, Kerr T. Service uptake and characteristics of injection drug users utilizing North America's first medically supervised safer injecting facility. American Journal of Public Health 2006; 96(5)770–773
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar