Mind-wandering during long-distance running and mood change. The role of working memory capacity and temporal orientation of thoughts

References

• Baird, B., Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2010, April 12–17). I can shake that feeling: Positive mind-wandering prevents the deterioration of mood [Poster presentation]. Towards a Science of Consciousness Conference, Tucson, AZ, USA.
   Google Scholar
• Baird, B., Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2011). Back to the future: Autobiographical planning and the functionality of mind-wandering. Consciousness and Cognition, 20(4), 1604–1611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2011.08.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brick, N., MacIntyre, T., & Campbell, M. (2014). Attentional focus in endurance activity: New paradigms and future directions. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 7(1), 106–134. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2014.885554
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carriere, J. S. A., Seli, P., & Smilek, D. (2013). Wandering in both mind and body: Individual differences in mind wandering and inattention predict fidgeting. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(1), 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031438
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, J. S. Y., Liu, G., Liang, D., Deng, K., Wu, J., & Yan, J. H. (2019). Special issue – Therapeutic benefits of physical activity for mood: A systematic review on the effects of exercise intensity, duration, and modality. The Journal of Psychology, 153(1), 102–125. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2018.1470487
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W. (2005). Working memory span tasks: A review and a user’s guide. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12(5), 769–786. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196772
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Csikszentmihalyi, M., Abuhamdeh, S., & Nakamura, J. (2014). Flow. In M. Csikszentmihalyi (Ed.), Flow and the foundations of positive psychology. The collected works of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (pp. 227–238). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Franklin, M. S., Mrazek, M. D., Anderson, C. L., Smallwood, J., Kingstone, A., & Schooler, J. W. (2013). The silver lining of a mind in the clouds: Interesting musings are associated with positive mood while mind-wandering. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, Article 583. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gid, M., & Kowalczyk, M. (2019). Mind wandering, activity, and current concerns among adults varying in age. A study using the Task-Unrelated Thoughts Questionnaire. Przegląd Psychologiczny/Review of Psychology, 62(3), 495–509. https://www.kul.pl/files/714/3.62.2019_art.4.eng.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Golchert, J., Smallwood, J., Jefferies, E., Seli, P., Huntenburg, J. M., Liem, F., Lauckner, M. E., Oligschläger, S., Bernhardt, B. C., Villringer, A., & Margulies, D. S. (2017). Individual variation in intentionality in the mind-wandering state is reflected in the integration of the default-mode, fronto-parietal, and limbic networks. NeuroImage, 146, 226–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.11.025
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goode, K. T., & Roth, D. L. (1993). Factor analysis of cognitions during running: Association with mood change. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15(4), 375–389. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.15.4.375
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goryńska, E. (2005). Przymiotnikowa Skala Nastroju UMACL Geralda Matthewsa, A. Grahama Chamberlaina, Dylana M. Jonesa: Podręcznik. [The UMACL mood adjective checklist by Gerald Matthews, A. Graham Chamberlain, and Dylan M. Jones: Manual]. Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych Polskiego Towarzystwa Psychologicznego.
   Google Scholar
• Hoerger, M. (2013). ZH: An updated version of Steiger's Z and web-based calculator for testing the statistical significance of the difference between dependent correlations. http://www.psychmike.com/dependent_correlations.php
   Google Scholar
• Huba, G. J., Singer, J. L., Aneshensel, C. S., & Antrobus, J. S. (1982). The Short Imaginal Processes Inventory. Research Psychologists Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jordano, M. L., & Touron, D. R. (2017). Stereotype threat as a trigger of mind wandering in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 32(3), 307–313. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000167
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kane, M. J., Brown, L. H., McVay, J. C., Silvia, P. J., Myin-Germeys, I., & Kwapil, T. R. (2007a). For whom the mind wanders, and when. An experience-sampling study of working memory and executive control in daily life. Psychological Science, 18(7), 614–621. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01948.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kane, M. J., Conway, A. R. A., Hambrick, D. Z., & Engle, R. W. (2007b). Variation in working memory capacity as variation in executive attention and control. In A. R. A. Conway, C. Jarrold, M. J. Kane, A. Miyake, & J. N. Towse (Eds.), Variation in working memory (pp. 21–48). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kane, M. J., Gross, G. M., Chun, C. A., Smeekens, B. A., Meier, M. E., Silvia, P. J., & Kwapil, T. R. (2017). For whom the mind wanders, and when, varies across laboratory and daily-life settings. Psychological Science, 28(9), 1271–1289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617706086
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Killingsworth, M. A., & Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. Science, 330(6006), 932. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1192439
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kowalczyk, M. (2013). Kwestionariusz Myśli oderwane od zadania. Doniesienie wstępne [Off-Task Thoughts Questionnaire. Preliminary communication]. Polskie Forum Psychologiczne, 18(2), 173–196.
   Google Scholar
• Kowalczyk, M., Klonowska, M., & Mikietyńska, A. (2020). Measuring propensity for off-task thinking with the Task-Unrelated Thoughts Questionnaire: Separating the general and content-specific components in mind-wandering variation. Manuscript in preparation.
   Google Scholar
• Latinjak, A. T. (2018a). Athletes’ self-reports on mind wandering while practicing sports: An exploratory two-study project. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 12(3), 432–447. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2017-0023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latinjak, A. T. (2018b). Goal-directed, spontaneous, and stimulus-independent thoughts and mindwandering in a competitive context. The Sport Psychologist, 32(1), 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2016-0044
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levinson, D. B., Smallwood, J., & Davidson, R. J. (2012). The persistence of thought: Evidence for a role of working memory in the maintenance of task-unrelated thinking. Psychological Science, 23(4), 375–380. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797611431465
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lind, E., Welch, A. S., & Ekkekakis, P. (2009). Do ‘mind over muscle’ strategies work? Examining the effects of attentional association and dissociation on exertional, affective and physiological responses to exercise. Sports Medicine, 39(9), 743–764. https://doi.org/10.2165/11315120-000000000-00000
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcusson-Clavertz, D., Cardeña, E., & Terhune, D. B. (2016). Daydreaming style moderates the relation between working memory and mind-wandering: Integrating two hypotheses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 42(3), 451–464. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000180
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masters, K. S., & Ogles, B. M. (1998). Associative and dissociative cognitive strategies in exercise and running: 20 years later, what do we know? The Sport Psychologist, 12(3), 253–270. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.12.3.253
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthews, G., Campbell, S. E., Falconer, S., Joyner, L. A., Huggins, J., Gilliland, K., Grier, R., & Warm, J. S. (2002). Fundamental dimensions of subjective state in performance settings: Task engagement, distress, and worry. Emotion, 2(4), 315–340. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.2.4.315.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthews, G., Jones, D. M., & Chamberlain, A. G. (1990). Refining the measurement of mood: The UWIST mood adjective checklist. British Journal of Psychology, 81(1), 17–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1990.tb02343.x
   Google Scholar
• McVay, J. C., Kane, M. J., & Kwapil, T. R. (2009). Tracking the train of thought from the laboratory into everyday life: An experience-sampling study of mind-wandering across controlled and ecological contexts. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16(5), 857–863. https://doi.org/10.3758/PBR.16.5.857
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meier, M. E., & Kane, M. J. (2017). Attentional control and working memory capacity. In T. Egner (Ed.), The Wiley handbook of cognitive control (pp. 50–63). Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Mooneyham, B. W., & Schooler, J. W. (2013). The costs and benefits of mind-wandering: A review. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quintana, M., Rivera, O., De La Vega, R., & Ruiz, R. (2012). Mapping the runner’s mind: A new methodology for real-time tracking of cognitions. Psychology, 3(8), 590–594. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2012.38088.
   Google Scholar
• Randall, J. G., Oswald, F. L., & Beier, M. E. (2014). Mind-wandering, cognition, and performance: A theory-driven meta-analysis of attention regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 140(6), 1411–1431. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037428
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redick, T. S., Heitz, R. P., & Engle, R. W. (2007). Working memory capacity and inhibition: Cognitive and social consequences. In D. S. Gorfein, & C. M. MacLeod (Eds.), Inhibition in cognition (pp. 125–142). American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Reed, J., & Ones, D. S. (2006). The effect of acute aerobic exercise on positive activated affect: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7(5), 477–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2005.11.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robison, M. K., & Unsworth, N. (2017). Working memory capacity and mind-wandering during low-demand cognitive tasks. Consciousness and Cognition, 52, 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2017.04.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robison, M. K., & Unsworth, N. (2018). Cognitive and contextual correlates of spontaneous and deliberate mind-wandering. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 44(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000444
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruby, F. J. M., Smallwood, J., Engen, H., & Singer, T. (2013). How self-generated thought shapes mood – the relation between mind-wandering and mood depends on the socio-temporal content of thoughts. PLoS ONE, 8(10), Article e77554. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salmon, P., Hanneman, S., & Harwood, B. (2010). Associative/dissociative cognitive strategies in sustained physical activity: Literature review and proposal for a mindfulness-based conceptual model. The Sport Psychologist, 24(2), 127–156. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.24.2.127
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samson, A., Simpson, D., Kamphoff, C., & Langlier, A. (2017). Think aloud: An examination of distance runners’ thought processes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 15(2), 176–189. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2015.1069877
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schomer, H. H. (1986). Mental strategies and the perception of effort of marathon runners. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 17, 41–59.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seli, P., Carriere, J. S. A., & Smilek, D. (2015a). Not all mind wandering is created equal: Dissociating deliberate from spontaneous mind wandering. Psychological Research, 79(5), 750–758. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-014-0617-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seli, P., Ralph, B. C. W., Konishi, M., Smilek, D., & Schacter, D. L. (2017a). What did you have in mind? Examining the content of intentional and unintentional types of mind wandering. Consciousness and Cognition, 51, 149–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2017.03.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seli, P., Risko, E. F., Purdon, C., & Smilek, D. (2017b). Intrusive thoughts: Linking spontaneous mind wandering and OCD symptomatology. Psychological Research, 81(2), 392–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-016-0756-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seli, P., Risko, E. F., & Smilek, D. (2016a). On the necessity of distinguishing between unintentional and intentional mind wandering. Psychological Science, 27(5), 685–691. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616634068
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seli, P., Risko, E. F., Smilek, D., & Schacter, D. L. (2016b). Mind-wandering with and without intention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(8), 605–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.05.010
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seli, P., Smallwood, J., Cheyne, J. A., & Smilek, D. (2015b). On the relation of mind wandering and ADHD symptomatology. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(3), 629–636. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-014-0793-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shepperd, J. A., Klein, W. M. P., Waters, E. A., & Weinstein, N. D. (2013). Taking stock of unrealistic optimism. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(4), 395–411. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613485247
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smallwood, J., & Andrews-Hanna, J. (2013). Not all minds that wander are lost: The importance of a balanced perspective on the mind-wandering state. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, Article 441. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smallwood, J., Davies, J. B., Heim, D., Finnigan, F., Sudberry, M., O’Connor, R., & Obonsawin, M. (2004). Subjective experience and the attentional lapse: Task engagement and disengagement during sustained attention. Consciousness and Cognition, 13(4), 657–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2004.06.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smallwood, J., Fitzgerald, A., Miles, L. K., & Phillips, L. H. (2009). Shifting moods, wandering minds: Negative moods lead the mind to wander. Emotion, 9(2), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014855
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2015). The science of mind-wandering: Empirically navigating the stream of consciousness. Annual Review of Psychology, 66(1), 487–518. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015331
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Song, X., & Wang, X. (2012). Mind-wandering in Chinese daily lives – an experience sampling study. PLoS ONE, 7(9), Article e44423. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044423
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spronken, M., Dijksterhuis, A., Holland, R., & Figner, B. (2015, February 26–28). Are we always happiest when being mindful? Exploring the role of activity pleasantness using an experience sampling study [Poster presentation]. SPSP Annual Convention 2015, Long Beach, CA, USA.
   Google Scholar
• Stevinson, C. D., & Biddle, S. J. H. (1998). Cognitive orientations in marathon running and ‘hitting the wall’. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 32(3), 229–235. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.32.3.229
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szabo, A., & Ábrahám, J. (2013). The psychological benefits of recreational running: A field study. Psychology, Health, and Medicine, 18(3), 251–261. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2012.701755
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 193–210. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.193
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unsworth, N., Heitz, R. P., Schrock, J. C., & Engle, R. W. (2005). An automated version of the operation span task. Behavior Research Methods, 37(3), 498–505. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03192720
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinstein, N. D. (1980). Unrealistic optimism about future life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(5), 806–820. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.39.5.806
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zavagnin, M., Borella, E., & De Beni, R. (2014). When the mind wanders: Age-related differences between young and older adults. Acta Psychologica, 145, 54–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.10.016
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zedelius, C. M., & Schooler, J. W. (2018). Unraveling what’s on our minds. How different types of mind-wandering affect cognition and behavior. In K. C. R. Fox, & K. Christoff (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of spontaneous thought: Mind-wandering, creativity, and dreaming (pp. 233–247). Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar