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Original Articles

Signal Intelligence in the Pacific War

Pages 149-168 | Published online: 05 Oct 2012

References

  • Bertrand , Gustave . 1973 . Enigma ou la plus Grande Enigme de la Guerre 1939–1945 Paris : Librairie Plon .
  • Winterbothom , Frederick W. 1974 . The Ultra Secret London : Weidenfeld and Nicholson .
  • The National Archives (NA) prepare, at irregular intervals, lists of declassified material. The documents are part of Record Group (RG) 457 and comprise a variety of signatures, e.g. S RA, SRDG, SRDJ, SRGL, SRGNL, SRH, SRN, SRNA, SRNM, SRNS
  • 1977 . The ‘Magic’ Background of Pearl Harbor Washington , D.C. : GPO . Department of Defense, 8 Vols
  • Magic Summaries Magic Diplomatic Summaries, 14 reels
  • Kahn , David . 1992 . “Roosevelt, Magic, and Ultra,” . In Cryptologia Vol. 1 , See 16 (: 289–319; “MAGIC Reports for the Attention of the President, 1943–1944” in Covert Warfare! Intelligence, Counterintelligence, and Military Deception during the World War IIEra. Vol.ULTRA, MAGIC, and the Allies, ed. John Mendelsohn (New York: Garland Publishing, 1989)
  • 1946 . Hearings, 79th Congress, 1st and 2nd Session Washington , D.C. : GPO . Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack, United States Congress, 39 Vols., The intercepted telegrams are also separately printed as: Pearl Harbor. Intercepted Diplomatic Messages sent by the Japanese Government between July 1 and December 8, 1941 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1945)
  • 1988 . Cryptologia Stimson's famous quotation that gentlemen do not read each other's mail, seems to have been used as a justification later. See Louis Kruh, “Stimson, the Black Chamber, and the ‘Gentlemen's Mail’ Quote,” 12 (: 65–89
  • Denniston , Robin . 1994 . “Yardley's Diplomatic Secrets,” . In Cryptologia 18 (: 81–127, in particular 86–89, 96–97. For the Washington Conference see the more recent publications: The Washington Conference, 1921–22. Special Issue, Diplomacy & Statecraft 4.3 (November 1993); Erik Goldstein and John Mawer, eds., The Washington Conference 1921–22: Naval Rivalry, East Asian Stability and the Road to Pearl Harbor (Ilford: Frank Cass, 1993)
  • Yardley , Herbert O. 1931 . The American Black Chamber Indianapolis : Bobbs-Merrill . (Reprint: New York, Ballantine, 1981). Japanese translation: Burakku chenba. Beikoku wa ikani shite gaikôhiden o nusunda ka? [Black Chamber. How Did America Steal Secret Diplomatic Telegrams?] (Osaka: Osaka Mainichi Shin- bunsha, 1931). In 1938, Yardley entered Chiang Kai-shek's service in order to establish a cryptanalysis system for China. After that, he was hired by Canada for the same purpose but he lost this position at the insistence of the United States who regarded him as too unreliable. After the beginning of the Pacific War, he hoped to be again able to serve the United States but this was not to happen. See Herbert O. Yardley, The Chinese Black Chamber: An Adventure in Espionage (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1983); idem, The Education of a Poker Player (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1957); Denniston, “Yardley's Diplomatic Secrets,” 117–19. On China's signal intelligence see also Yu Maochun, “Chinese Codebreakers, 1927–45,” Intelligence and National Security 14 (1999): 200–13
  • 1984 . The Missing Dimension. Governments and Intelligence Communities in the Twentieth Century London : Macmillan . Yardley's section had also broken the German and the British codes. Christopher Andrew, “Codebreakers and Foreign Offices: The French, British and American Experience,” in Christopher Andrew and David Dilks, eds., 33–53, 253–55, in particular 49. See also National Archives and Record Administration, RG 457-77-1, Historical Background of the Signal Security Agency, 2: 39–55
  • Lewin , Ronald . 1982 . The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers and the Defeat of Japan 112 – 27 . New York : Farrar Straus Giroux . Ronald H. Spector, Eagle against the Sun. The American War with Japan (New York: The Free Press, 1985), 451–52
  • Lewin . 1988 . The American Magic 5 – 6 . Wilmington , DE : Scholarly Resources . 232; Ronald H. Spector, Listening to the Enemy. Key Documents on the Role of Communications Intelligence in the War with Japan (ix-x; “From the Archives: Statement for Record of Participation of Brig. Gen. Carter W. Clarke, GSC in the Transmittal of Letters from Gen. George C. Marshall to Gov. Thomas E. Dewey, the Latter Part of September 1944,” Cryptologia 7 (1983): 119–28
  • Harris , R. 1941 . Pacific Historical Review See Ruth “The ‘Magic’ Leak of and Japanese-American Relations,” 50 (1981): 77–96; Iwashima Hisao, Jôhôsen ni kanpai shita Nihon. Rikugun angô shinwa no hôkai [Japan Completely Defeated in the Intelligence War. The Breakdown of the Army Code Myth] (Tokyo: Hara Shobô, 1984), 91–96; Lewin, The American Magic, 55–56; Nigel West, GCHQ. The Secret Wireless War 1900–86 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1986), 175–76
  • 1993 . Ultra in the Pacific: How Breaking Japanese Codes and Ciphers Affected Naval Operations against Japan London : Leo Cooper . A wealth of documents covering these intelligence activities are held in the National Archives, Wasgington, D.C., e.g.: SRH 011: The Role of C.I. in Submarine Warfare in the Pacific; SRH 012: The Role of R.I. in the American-Japanese Naval War; SRH 019: Blockade Running between Europe and the Far East by Submarines 1942–1944; SRH 180: U.S. Naval Pre-World War II Radio Intercept Activities in the Philippine Islands; SRH 223: Various Reports on Japanese Grand Fleet Maneuvers, June-August 1933; SRH 224: Various Reports on Japanese Grand Fleet Maneuvers, August-October 1934; SRH 225: Various Reports on Japanese Grand Fleet Maneuvers; SRH 318: U.S. Naval Reports on Japanese Grand Fleet Maneuvers, 1936; SRH 319: Various Reports on Japanese Grand Fleet Maneuvers, 1937; SRH 320: Various Reports on Japanese Grand Fleet Maneuvers, 1927 to 1929; SRNS 001–1289: Japanese Naval Intelligence Summaries, 1942–1946; SRNS 1290–1458 Summaries of Japanese Warship/Fleet/Aircraft Locations and Intentions, 1942–1945; all RG 457, NA. See also John Winton, in particular 232–37; Edward J. Drea, MacArthur's Ultra: Codebreaking and the War against Japan, 1942–1945 (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1992), in particular 242, 237–40; idem, “Ultra and the American War against Japan: A Note on Sources,” Intelligence and National Security 3 (1988: 195204; Carl Boyd, “Anglo-American-Japanese Cryptologic Preparations for the Second World War,” The Enigma Bulletin (Kraków) 2 (May 1997): 17–52; idem, “U.S. Navy Radio Intelligence during the Second World War and the Sinking of the Japanese Submarine I-52,” The Journal of Military History 63 (1999): 33954
  • Edwin , T. and Costello , John . 1985 . And I Was There. Pearl Harbor and Midway—Breaking the Secrets New York : William Morrow . See
  • Rochefort , Joseph J. 1983 . “As I Recall… Learning Cryptanalysis,” . In Naval Institute Proceedings 109 (August: 54–55. For Rochefort's outstanding role (and his final sidetracking) see particularly all the works of Layton, And I Was There; W.J. Holmes, Double-Edged Secrets. U.S. Naval Intelligence Operations in the Pacific during World War II (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1979); Gordon W. Prange, Donald M. Goldstein, and Katherine V. Dillon, Miracle at Midway (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982); Spector, Listening, 12–21
  • Zacharias , Ellis M. 1946 . Secret Missions: The Story of an Intelligence Officer New York : G. P. Putnam's Sons .
  • Holmes . Double-Edged Secrets 23
  • 28 July 1975 . Author's interview with Paul Wenneker, German naval attaché in Tokyo during the periods 1934–37 and 1940–45, in Hamburg on Wenneker believed the Japanese to be extremely careless as regards radio transmission procedures, but he was at this time (1975!) still convinced—though evidence of the contrary was already available—that the German ciphers, in particular those of the navy, had not been broken by the Allies
  • 1944 . The Exploitation of Japanese Documents ATIS (Allied Translator and Interpreter Section), SWPA (Southwest Pacific Theater, General Headquarters), ATIS Publication No. 6, December 14, 1, USAMHI, quoted according to Drea, MacArthur, 7
  • Drea . 1991 . MacArthur , 2 : 1995 12; idem, “Reading Each Other's Mail: Japanese Communications Intelligence, 1920–1941,” Journal of Military History 55 (: 185–205; idem, “Were the Japanese Army Codes Secure?” Cryptologia 19: 113–36; idem and Joseph E. Richard, “New Evidence on Breaking the Japanese Army Codes”, Intelligence and National Security 14(1999: 62–83; Kamaga Kazuo et al., “Zadankai. Nihon rikugun angô wa naze yaburarenakatta,” [Panel Discussion. Why Could the Japanese Army Code Not Be Broken?] Rekishi to Jinbutsu (December 1985): 150–65, here pp. 157–58
  • Krebs , Gerhard . Leaders and Leadership in Japan 198 “The Spy Activities of Diplomat Terasaki Hidenari in the USA and his Role in Japanese-American Relations,” in Ian Neary, ed., (Richmond/Surrey, Japan Library-Curzon Press, 1996), 190–205, here p
  • Hickey , John E. 1991 . “A Code Within a Code,” . In Cryptolog 12 4 (Summer: 5, 7, 14, 19; S. Huffman, “The Navajo Code Talkers: A Cryptologic and Linguistic Perspective,” Cryptologia 24 (2000): 289–320
  • Clark , Ronald . 1977 . The Man who Broke Purple: The Life of Colonel William F. Friedman, Who Deciphered the Japanese Code in World War II Boston : Little, Brown and Company . See
  • Stripp , Alan . 1989 . Codebreakers in the Far East Savage , MD : Frank Cass . See (Hugh Skillen, Spies of the Airwaves. A History of Y Sections during the Second World War (Harrow Weald: Private publication, 1989); Richard J. Aldrich, “Britain's Secret Intelligence Service in Asia during the Second World War,” Modern Asian Studies 32 (1998): 179–217
  • Thorpe , Elliott R. 1969 . East Wind Rain: The Intimate Account of an Intelligence Officer in the Pacific, 1939–1949 Boston : Gambit . See (Bob de Graaff, “Hot Intelligence in the Tropics: Dutch Intelligence Operations in the Netherlands East Indies during the Second World War,” Journal of Contemporary History 22 (1987): 563–84
  • Lewin . The American Magic 159
  • 1999 . Eagle Ibid., 159–75; Spector, 458–59; Frank Cain, “Signals Intelligence in Australia during the Pacific War,” Intelligence and National Security 14 (: 4061
  • Wark , Wesley K. 1987 . “Cryptographic Innocence: The Origins of Signals Intelligence in Canada in the Second World War,” . In Journal of Contemporary History 22 (: 639–65
  • Parker , Frederick D. 1991 . “The Unsolved Messages of Pearl Harbor,” . In Cryptologia 15 (: 295–313
  • Layton . 1976 . And I Was There Annapolis , MD : Naval Institute Press . Chapters 28–32; Prange, Goldstein, and Dillon, Miracle at Midway, passim; Lewin, The American Magic, 91–92; Spector, Eagle, 449–50; Holmes, Double-Edged Secrets, 70–4; E. B. Potter, Nimitz (idem, “The Crypt of the Cryptanalysts,” Naval Institute Proceedings 109 (August 1983): 52–56
  • 1991 . Japan's Southward Advance and Australia: From the Sixteenth Century to World War Two Honolulu , HI : University of Hawaii Press . For Japan's Australia plans see Henry Frei
  • Holmes . Double-Edged Secrets 85 – 99 . Potter, Crypt, 54–56; Layton, And I Was There, 405–48, 473–74; Lewin, The American Magic, 104–109; Spector, Listening, 154–69
  • Kahn , David . 1967 . The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing London : Macmillan . 590; Holmes, Double-Edged Secrets, 124–25; Winton, Ultra in the Pacific, 102–103. Winton is correct in arguing that the figure of 200,000 code books mentioned by Japanese officers after the war is much too high since there would not have been enough room for these aboard the submarines
  • Layton . 1978 . And I Was There 474 – 76 . New York : Scribner's . Kahn, Codebreakers, 595–601; Edward van der Rhoer, Deadly Magic
  • Kamaga . “Zadankai,” 53
  • Drea , See . MacArthur passim; Iwashima, Jôhôsen ni kanpai shita Nihon, 45–76
  • Kamaga . 1984 . Rekishi to Jinbutsu “Zadankai”; Kamaga Kazuo, “Nihon rikugun angô wa ‘antai’ datta,” [The Japanese Army Code Was Secure] (September: 270–82. In particular, Kamaga rejected Iwashima's research results in an exceptionally harsh manner
  • Drea , See . 24 July 1945 . MacArthur; “Reminiscences of Lieutenant Colonel Howard W. Brown,” in Spector, Listening, 43–76
  • Allen , Louis . 1986 . Burma: The Longest War 394 – 95 . London : J. M. Dent and Son . Spector, Listening, 188
  • Stripp . Codebreakers in the Far East 68 – 69 . 75; Allen, Burma, passim
  • 2000 . Germany's Last Misson to Japan. The Sinister Voyage of U- 234 London : Chatham Publishing . Joseph Mark Scalia On the relations between the German and the Japanese navy see the recent study of Berthold Sander-Nagashima, “Die deutsch-japanischen Marinebeziehungen 1919 bis 1942,” Diss., University of Hamburg, 1998
  • Boyd , Carl . 1993 . Hitler's Japanese Confidant: General Oshima Hiroshi and Magic Intelligence, 1941–1945 Lawrence , KS : University of Kansas Press . See
  • Krebs , Gerhard . 1990 . “ eds. ” . In Deutschland-Japan in der Zwischenkriegszeit Bonn : Bouvier . See “Japanische Vermittlungsversuche im deutsch-sowjetischen Krieg 1941–1945,” in Josef Kreiner and Regine Mathias, 239–88
  • 1945 . Listening See the investigation reports in Spector, 237–85; SRH-079: Russo- Japanese Relations (June; SRH-084: Russo-Japanese Relations (1–12 July 1945); SRH-085: Russo-Japanese Relations (13–20 July 1945); SRH-008: Russo- Japanese Relations (28 July-6 August 1945), all RG 457, NA
  • Krebs , See , ed. “The Spy Activities of Diplomat Terasaki Hidenari.”
  • Krebs , Gerhard , ed. 1988 . “Japanese-Spanish Relations, 1936–1945,” . In The Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan , Fourth Series See 3 (: 21–52
  • Holmes , ed. Double-Edged Secrets 164 – 69 . Drea, MacArthur, passim
  • Drea , ed. MacArthur 52 – 53 .
  • Ibid chapter 5
  • Lewin , ed. The American Magic 11
  • Kamaga , ed. 1985 . Jôhô shikan no kaisô Tokyo : Asahi Sonorama . “Nihon rikugun”; Kamaga et al., “Zadankai”; Nakamuta Kenichi, [Reminiscences of an Intelligence Officer] (Miyauchi Kanya, Niitakayama nobore 1208. Nihon kaigun no angô [Climb Mount Niitaka on December 8. The Code of the Japanese Navy] (Tokyo: Rokkô Shuppan, 1975); Sanematsu Yuzuru, Nichi-Bei jôhô senki [The Japanese-American intelligence war] (Tokyo: Tosho Shuppansha, 1980); Sugita Ichiji, Jôhô naki sensôshidô. Daihonei jôhô sanbô no kaisô [Warfare Without Intelligence. Reminiscences of an Intelligence Officer in the Headquarters] (Tokyo: Hara Shobô, 1987); Ariga Tsutao, Nihon rikukaigun no jôhôkikô to sono katsudô [The Intelligence Organizations of Japan's Army and Navy and their Activities] (Tokyo: Kindai Bungeisha, 1994). Drea, Reading Each Other's Mail; idem, Japanese Army Codes; Michael A. Barnhart, “Japanese Intelligence before the Second World War: ‘Best Case’ Analysis,” in Ernest May, ed., Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment before the Two World Wars (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), 424–55; Louis Allen, “Japanese Intelligence Systems,” Journal of Contemporary History 22 (1987): 547–62; John W. M. Chapman, “Japanese Intelligence 1919–1945: A Suitable Case for Treatment,” in Christopher Andrew and Jeremy Noakes, eds., Intelligence and International Relations 1900–1945 (Exeter: Exeter University Press, 1987), 145–89
  • 1971 . “ Bôeikenshûjo, Senshishitsu [Self-Defense Office, Research Agency, War History Section] ” . In Middowê kaisen Vol. 43 , Tokyo : Asagumo Shinbunsha . Bôeichô [The Midway Naval Battle] 593 (Vol. of Senshi Sôsho [Serial Work on War History])
  • Nakamuta . 1945 . Jôhô shikan 142 – 43 . Sanematsu, Nichi-Bei, 31–45; Layton, And I Was There, 47–8, 61–2; Kahn, Codebreakers, 579–91; Drea, Reading Each Other's Mail; idem, Japanese Army Codes; J. W. Bennet, W.A. Hobart, and J.B. Spitzer, Intelligence and Cryptanalytic Activities of the Japanese during World War II. SRH 254, The Japanese Intelligence System, MIS/WDGS (Laguna Hills, CA: Aegean Park Press, 1986), 6–12
  • Kamaga . “Zadankai,” 161
  • Sanematsu . Nichi-Bei 70 – 74 . Layton, And I Was There, 47–48
  • Kamaga . Intelligence and Cryptanalytic Activities “Zadankai,” 150–65; Bennet, Hobart, and Spitzer, 10–23
  • Ariga . Nihon rikukaigun 17 – 222 . see also Barnhart, “Japanese Intelligence before the Second World War,” 428–29
  • Ariga . Nihon rikukaigun 227 – 352 . see also Barnhart, “Japanese Intelligence before the Second World War,” 427–28
  • Sanematsu . Nichi-Bei 66 – 67 .
  • Nakamuta . Jôhô shikan 142 – 43 . Sanematsu, Nichi-Bei, 44; Layton, And I Was There, 47–48, 61–62
  • Barnhart . “Japanese Intelligence before the Second World War,” 426–27
  • Drea . Reading Each Other's Mail 190
  • Chapman . “Japanese Intelligence 1919–1945;” Kahn ” . In Codebreakers 195 – 202 . 582; Drea, Reading Each Other's Mail, 191–202; see the examples Drea gives on pp
  • Grew , Joseph C. 1944 . Ten Years in Japan 414 – 15 . New York : Simon and Schuster . (7 August 1941)
  • Fearey , Robert A. 1992 . “My Year with Ambassacor Joseph C. Grew, 1941–1942: A Personal Account,” . In The Journal of American-East Asian Relations 105 1 (Spring: 99–136, here p.; John K. Emmerson, The Japanese Thread: A Life in the U.S. Foreign Service (New York: Holt, Rinhart and Winston, 1978), 100–101
  • Emmerson . The Japanese Thread 100
  • Bennet . “ Hobart, and Spitzer ” . In Intelligence and Cryptanalytic Activities 12 – 23 . Spector, Listening, 225–34
  • 3 September 1941 . SRNA Telegram from Japanese Naval Attaché to Navy Ministry and Admiralty, 144, RG 457, NA. I am grateful to Berthold Sander-Nagashima for providing me a copy of this important document
  • 1997 . Takamatsu no miya nikki Tokyo : Chûô Kôron- sha . [The Diary of Prince Takamatsu] 7: 317, 320
  • Kamaga . “Zadankai,” 162–65
  • Intelligence and Cryptanalytic Activities Bennet, Hobart, and Spitzer

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