References
- Ng M, Fleming T, Robinson M, et al. Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet. 2014;384:766–9.
- Shisana O, Labadarios D, Rehle T, et al. South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (SANHANES–1). Cape Town: HSRC Press; 2013.
- Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, et al. Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data. Lancet. 2006;367:1747–1757.
- Akubakari A, Lauder W, Agyemang C, et al. Prevalence and time trends in obesity among adult West African populations: a meta–analysis. Obes Rev. 2008;9:297–311.
- Kahn K, Garenne ML, Collinson MA, et al. Mortality trends in a new South Africa: hard to make a fresh start. Scand J Public Health Suppl. 2007;69:26–34.
- Puoane T, Steyn K, Bradshaw D, et al. Obesity in South Africa: the South African demographic and health survey. Obes Res. 2002;10:1038–1048.
- Micklesfield LK, Lambert EV, Hume DJ, et al. Socio-cultural, environmental and behavioural determinants of obesity in black South African women. Cardiovasc J Afr. 2013;24:369–375.
- Nojilana B, Bradshaw D, Pillay-Van Wyk V, et al. Persistent burden from non-communicable diseases in South Africa needs strong action. S Afr Med J. 2016;106:23–24.
- Crowther NJ, Norris SA. The current waist circumference cut point used for the diagnosis of metabolic syndrome in sub–Saharan African women is not appropriate. PLoS One. 2012;7:e48883.
- Gradidge PJ, Crowther NJ, Chirwa ED, et al. Patterns, levels and correlates of self-reported physical activity in urban Soweto women. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:934.
- Gradidge PJ, Norris SA, Micklesfield LK, et al. The role of lifestyle and psycho-social factors in predicting changes in body composition in black South African Women. PLoS One. 2015;10:e013291.
- Gradidge PJ, Norris SA, Jaff NG, et al. Metabolic and body composition risk factors associated with metabolic syndrome in a cohort of women with a high prevalence of cardiometabolic disease. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0162247.
- Brunzell JD, Davidson M, Furberg CD, et al. Lipoprotein management in patients with cardiometabolic risk: consensus statement from the American Diabetes Association and the American College of Cardiology. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:811–822.
- Guthold R, Ono T, Strong KL, et al. Worldwide variability in physical inactivity a 51–country survey. Am J Prev Med. 2008;34:486–494.
- Senekal M, Steyn NP, Nel JH. Factors associated with overweight/obesity in economically active South African populations. Ethn Dis. 2003;13:109–116.
- Bakrania K, Edwardson CL, Bodicoat DH, et al. Associations of mutually exclusive categories of physical activity and sedentary time with markers of cardiometabolic health in English adults: a cross-sectional analysis of the Health Survey for England. BMC Public Health. 2016;16:25.
- Biddle SJ, García Bengoechea E, Wiesner G. Sedentary behaviour and adiposity in youth: a systematic review of reviews and analysis of causality. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2017;14:43.
- Malyutina S, Bobak M, Kurilovitch S, et al. Relation between heavy and binge drinking and all–cause and cardiovascular mortality in Novosibirsk, Russia: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2002;360:1448–1454.
- Persson PG, Carlsson S, Svanström L, et al. Cigarette smoking, oral moist snuff use and glucose intolerance. J Intern Med. 2000;248:103–110.
- Motoshima H, Wu X, Sinha MK, et al. Differential regulation of adiponectin secretion from cultured human omental and subcutaneous adipocytes: effects of insulin and rosiglitazone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87:5662–5667.
- Richter LM, Norris SA, Pettifor JM, et al. Mandela’s children: the 1990 Birth to Twenty study in South Africa. Int J Epidemiol. 2007;36:1–8.
- Bonner P, Segal L. Soweto—A history. Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman; 1998.
- Frith A Soweto. [ cited 2016 Jan 5]. Available from: http://census2011.adrianfrith.com/place/798026
- Richter LM, Norris SA, De Wet T. Transition from Birth to ten to twenty: the South African cohort reaches 13 years of age. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2004;18:290–301.
- Norris SA, Richter LM, Fleetwood SA. Panel studies in developing countries: case analysis of sample attrition over the past 15 years within the Birth to Twenty cohort in Johannesburg, South Africa. J Int Dev. 2007;19:1143–1150.
- Bull FC, Maslin TS, Armstrong T. Global physical activity questionnaire (GPAQ): nine country reliability and validity study. J Phys Act Health. 2009;6:790–804.
- American College of Sports Medicine. ACSM’s guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2010.
- Goedecke JH, Micklesfield LK, Levitt NS, et al. Effect of different antiretroviral drug regimens on body fat distribution of HIV-infected South African women. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2013;29:557–563.
- Alberti KG, Eckel RH, Grundy SM, et al. Harmonizing the metabolic syndrome: a joint interim statement of the International Diabetes Federation Task Force on Epidemiology and Prevention; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; American Heart Association; World Heart Federation; International Atherosclerosis Society; and International Association for the Study of Obesity. Circulation. 2009;120:1640–1645.
- Griffiths PL, Rousham EK, Norris SA, et al. Socio–economic status and body composition outcomes in urban South African children. Arch Dis Child. 2008;93:862–867.
- Douglas MJ, Watkins SJ, Gorman DR, et al. Are cars the new tobacco? J Public Health. 2011;33:160–169.
- Bowman SA. Television-viewing characteristics of adults: correlations to eating practices and overweight and health status. Prev Chronic Dis. 2006;3:A38.
- Yamauchi T, Kadowaki T. Physiological and pathophysiological roles of adiponectin and adiponectin receptors in the integrated regulation of metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. Int J Obes. 2008;32:S13–S8.
- Frayn KN. Adipose tissue as a buffer for daily lipid flux. Diabetologia. 2002;45:1201–1210.
- World Health Organization. Global status report on noncommunicable diseases 2014. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2014.
- Mozaffarian D, Tao Hao PH, Rimm EB, et al. Changes in diet and lifestyle and long-term weight gain in women and men. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:2392–2404.
- Dempsey PC, Owen N, Yates TE, et al. Sitting less and moving more: improved glycaemic control for type 2 diabetes prevention and management. Curr Diab Rep. 2016;16:114.
- Andreyeva T, Kelly IR, Harris JL. Exposure to food advertising on television: associations with children’s fast food and soft drink consumption and obesity. Econ Hum Biol. 2011;9:221–233.