Stunting and severe stunting among infants in India: the role of delayed introduction of complementary foods and community and household factors

References

• World Health Organization. Indicators for assessing infant and young child feeding practices - Part 1 – definitions. 2008. Available from: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/43895/9789241596664_eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
   Google Scholar
• Patel A, Pusdekar Y, Badhoniya N, et al. Determinants of inappropriate complementary feeding practices in young children in India: secondary analysis of national family health survey 2005–2006. Maternal Child Nutr. 2012;8:28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogbo FA, Agho K, Ogeleka P, et al. Infant feeding practices and diarrhoea in sub-Saharan African countries with high diarrhoea mortality. PloS One. 2017;12:e0171792.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogbo FAPA, Idoko J, Claudio F, et al. Diarrhoea and suboptimal feeding practices in Nigeria: evidence from the national household surveys. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2016;30:346–10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao S, Swathi P, Unnikrishnan B, et al. Study of complementary feeding practices among mothers of children aged six months to two years - A study from coastal south India. Australas Med J. 2011;4:252.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Senarath U, Agho KE, Akram D, et al. Comparisons of complementary feeding indicators and associated factors in children aged 6–23 months across five South Asian countries. Matern Child Nutr. 2012;8:89–106.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UNICEF South Asia. Stop stunting -in South Asia -a common narrative on maternal and child nutrition-UNICEF South Asia-strategy 2014–2017. 2015. Available from: http://stopstunting.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/StopStuntinginSouthAsia-ACommonNarrativeonMaternalandChildNutrition_UNICEF.pdf
   Google Scholar
• UNICEF. Malnutrition 2018. Available from: https://data.unicef.org/topic/nutrition/malnutrition/
   Google Scholar
• UNICEF South Asia. Stop stunting-South Asia headline results-2017 progress report. 2017. Available from: http://www.unicefrosa-progressreport.org/stopstunting.html
   Google Scholar
• Meshram II, Arlappa N, Balakrishna N, et al. Trends in the prevalence of undernutrition, nutrient & food intake and predictors of undernutrition among under five year tribal children in India. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2012;21:568–576.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mishra K, Kumar P, Basu S, et al. Risk factors for severe acute malnutrition in children below 5 y of age in India: A case-control study. Indian J Pediatr. 2014;81:762–765.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Priyanka R, Vincent V, Jini M, et al. An assessment of the nutritional status of underfive children in a rural area of Thrissur district, Kerala, India. Int J Community Med Public Health. 2016;3:3479–3486.
   Google Scholar
• Aguayo VM, Nair R, Badgaiyan N, et al. Determinants of stunting and poor linear growth in children under 2 years of age in India: an in‐depth analysis of Maharashtra’s comprehensive nutrition survey. Matern Child Nutr. 2016;12:121–140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma AK, Baig VN, Yadav AK, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for stunting among tribal under-five children at South-West, Rajasthan, India. Natl J Community Med. 2016;7:461–467.
   Google Scholar
• Fenske N, Burns J, Hothorn T, et al. Understanding child stunting in India: a comprehensive analysis of socio-economic, nutritional and environmental determinants using additive quantile regression. PloS One. 2013;8:e78692.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rah JH, Cronin AA, Badgaiyan B, et al. Household sanitation and personal hygiene practices are associated with child stunting in rural India: a cross-sectional analysis of surveys. BMJ Open. 2015;5:e005180.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandrasekhar S, Aguayo VM, Krishna V, et al. Household food insecurity and children’s dietary diversity and nutrition in India. Evidence from the comprehensive nutrition survey in Maharashtra. Matern Child Nutr. 2017;13 Suppl 2. Epub 2017/10/17. PubMed PMID: 29032621. DOI:10.1111/mcn.12447
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menon P, Bamezai A, Subandoro A, et al. Age‐appropriate infant and young child feeding practices are associated with child nutrition in I ndia: insights from nationally representative data. Matern Child Nutr. 2015;11:73–87.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinhababu A, Mukhopadhyay DK, Panja TK, et al. Infant- and young child-feeding practices in Bankura District, West Bengal, India. J Health Popul Nutr. 2010;28:294–299. PubMed PMID: 518039218; 20635641.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad I, Khalique N, Khalil S, et al. Dietary diversity and stunting among infants and young children: a cross-sectional study in Aligarh. Indian J Community Med. 2018;43:34–36. PubMed PMID: 128005164. Language: English. Entry Date: 20180307. Revision Date: 20180307. Publication Type: Article.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chyne DAL, Meshram II, Rajendran A, et al. Nutritional status, food insecurity, and biodiversity among the Khasi in Meghalaya, North‐East India. Matern Child Nutr. 2017;13:1. PubMed PMID: 127501110. Language: English. Entry Date: 20180206. Revision Date: 20180206. Publication Type: Article.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moffitt R, Schoeni RF, Brown C, et al. Assessing the need for a new nationally representative household panel survey in the United States. (Author abstract). J Econ Social Meas. 2015;40:1.
   Google Scholar
• International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), ICF. National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4)-reports. Mumbai (India): IIPS; 2015. Available from: 98%;http://rchiips.org/NFHS/NFHS-4Reports/India.pdf
   Google Scholar
• International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), ICF. National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4) - national report. Mumbai (India): IIPS; 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Ogbo FA, Agho KE, Page A. Determinants of suboptimal breastfeeding practices in Nigeria: evidence from the 2008 demographic and health survey. BMC Public Health. 2015;15:259.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akombi BJ, Agho KE, Hall JJ, et al. Stunting and severe stunting among children under-5 years in Nigeria: A multilevel analysis. BMC Pediatr. 2017;17:15. PubMed PMID: PMC5237247.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Onis M, Borghi E, Arimond M, et al. Prevalence thresholds for wasting, overweight and stunting in children under 5 years. Public Health Nutr. 2019;22:175–179.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nkurunziza S, Meessen B, Korachais C. Determinants of stunting and severe stunting among Burundian children aged 6–23 months: evidence from a national cross-sectional household survey, 2014. BMC Pediatr. 2017;17:176.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Onis M, Blössner M, Borghi E, et al. Estimates of global prevalence of childhood underweight in 1990 and 2015. JAMA. 2004;291:2600–2606.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Onis M, Frongillo EA, Blössner M. Is malnutrition declining? An analysis of changes in levels of child malnutrition since 1980. Bull World Health Organ. 2000;78:1222–1233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UNICEF. Strategy for improved nutrition of children and women in developing countries. New York (NY): UNICEF; 1990.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organisation. Nutrition health topics 2019. Available from: https://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/moderate_malnutrition/en/
   Google Scholar
• De Onis M, et al. WHO child growth standards: length/height-for-age, weight-for-age, weight-for-length, weight-for-height and body mass index-for-age. Geneva (Switzerland): WHO Press; 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Keino S, Plasqui G, Ettyang G, et al. Determinants of stunting and overweight among young children and adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa. Food Nutr Bull. 2014;35:167–178. Epub 2014/08/01. PubMed PMID: 25076764.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiang Y, Su X, Wang C, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for stunting and severe stunting among children under three years old in mid-western rural areas of China. Child Care Health Dev. 2015;41:45–51. Epub 2014/ 05/07. PubMed PMID: 24797895.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh A, Upadhyay A, Kumar K. Birth size, stunting and recovery from stunting in Andhra Pradesh, India: evidence from the young lives study. Maternal Child Health J. 2017;21:492–508. PubMed PMID: 121919518. Language: English. Entry Date: 20170323. Revision Date: 20180301. Publication Type: Article.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corsi DJ, Mejía-Guevara I, Subramanian S. Risk factors for chronic undernutrition among children in India: estimating relative importance, population attributable risk and fractions. Soc Sci Med. 2016;157:165–185.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad Kiadaliri A. Global, regional, and national age-sex specific mortality for 264 causes of death, 1980–2016: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2016. Lancet. 2017;390:1151–1210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar D, Goel N, Mittal PC, et al. Influence of infant-feeding practices on nutritional status of under-five children. Indian J Pediatr. 2006;73:417–421.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Owais A, Schwartz B, Kleinbaum DG, et al. Minimum acceptable diet at 9 months but not exclusive breastfeeding at 3 months or timely complementary feeding initiation is predictive of infant growth in Rural Bangladesh. PloS One. 2016;11:e0165128. Epub 2016/10/25. PubMed PMID: 27776161; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5077142.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organisation. WHA global nutrition targets 2025: stunting policy brief 2014. Available from: https://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/moderate_malnutrition/en/
   Google Scholar
• Word Health Organisation. Nutrition - complementary feeding, 2019. Available from: https://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/complementary_feeding/en/
   Google Scholar
• Abuya B, Onsomu E, Kimani J, et al. Influence of maternal education on child immunization and stunting in Kenya. Matern Child Health J. 2011;15:1389–1399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khattak UK, Iqbal SP, Ghazanfar H. The role of parents’ literacy in malnutrition of children under the age of five years in a semi-urban community of Pakistan: a case-control study. Cureus. 2017;9:6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan GN, Turab A, Khan MI, et al. Prevalence and associated factors of malnutrition among children under-five years in Sindh, Pakistan: a cross-sectional study. BMC Nutr. 2016;2:69.
   Google Scholar
• National Health Survey of Pakistan (NHSP, 1990–1994). Health Profile of the People of Pakistan. Islamabad (Pakistan): Pakistan Medical Research Council; 1998. p. 24.
   Google Scholar
• Ogbo F, Page A, Idoko J, et al. Population attributable risk of key modifiable risk factors associated with non-exclusive breastfeeding in Nigeria. BMC Public Health. 2018;18:1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogbo FA, Page A, Idoko J, et al. Trends in complementary feeding indicators in Nigeria, 2003–2013. BMJ Open. 2015;5:e008467.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogbo FA, Page A, Agho KE, et al. Determinants of trends in breast-feeding indicators in Nigeria, 1999–2013. Public Health Nutr. 2015;18:3287–3299.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kassa T, Meshesha B, Haji Y, et al. Appropriate complementary feeding practices and associated factors among mothers of children age 6–23 months in Southern Ethiopia, 2015. BMC Pediatr. 2016;16:131. Epub 2016/08/21. PubMed PMID: 27542833; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4992197.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mamabolo RL, Alberts M, Mbenyane GX, et al. Feeding practices and growth of infants from birth to 12 months in the central region of the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Nutrition. 2004;20:327–333.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Issaka AI, Agho KE, Burns P, et al. Determinants of inadequate complementary feeding practices among children aged 6–23 months in Ghana. Public Health Nutr. 2015;18:669–678.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batal M, Boulghourjian C, Akik C. Complementary feeding patterns in a developing country: a cross-sectional study across Lebanon. East Mediterr Health J. 2010;16:180–186. DOI:10.26719/2010.16.2.180M
   Google Scholar
• Basnet S, Sathian B, Malla K, et al. Reasons for early or late initiation of complementary feeding: a study in Pokhara. Am J Public Health Res. 2015;3:69–75.
   Google Scholar
• Abuya BA, Ciera J, Kimani-Murage E. Effect of mother’s education on child’s nutritional status in the slums of Nairobi. BMC Pediatr. 2012;12:80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rohner F, Woodruff BA, Aaron GJ, et al. Infant and young child feeding practices in urban Philippines and their associations with stunting, anemia, and deficiencies of iron and vitamin A. Food Nutr Bull. 2013;34:S17–S34. Epub 2013/09/21. PubMed PMID: 24049993.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The DHS program - Demographic and Health Surveys. DHS model Questionnaires. Available from: https://dhsprogram.com/What-We-Do/Survey-Types/DHS-Questionnaires.cfm#CP_JUMP_16179
   Google Scholar
• Chirande L, Charwe D, Mbwana H, et al. Determinants of stunting and severe stunting among under-fives in Tanzania: evidence from the 2010 cross-sectional household survey. BMC Pediatr. 2015;15:165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akombi BJ, Agho KE, Merom D, et al. Multilevel analysis of factors associated with wasting and underweight among children under-five years in Nigeria. Nutrients. 2017;9:44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rayhan MI, Khan MSH. Factors causing malnutrition among under five children in Bangladesh. Pak J Nutr. 2006;5:558–562.
   Google Scholar
• Tiwari R, Ausman LM, Agho KE. Determinants of stunting and severe stunting among under-fives: evidence from the 2011 Nepal demographic and health survey. BMC Pediatr. 2014;14:239.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. World’s largest nutrition education program launches in India, courtesy of the mobile phone. New Delhi (India); 2015. Available from: http://www.who.int/pmnch/media/news/2015/mobile/en/
   Google Scholar
• Government of India. Mother and child nutrtition-mother, infant and young child nutrition & malnutrition: India’s primary policy response: The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) program. The Mother and Child Health and Education Trust; 1975 [updated 2017 Dec 16; cited 2019]. Available from: http://motherchildnutrition.org/india/program-outline.html
   Google Scholar
• Government of India. POSHAN Abhiyaan - PM’s overarching scheme for holistic nourishment. National Portal of India, Government of India; 2018. Available from: https://www.india.gov.in/spotlight/poshan-abhiyaan-pms-overarching-scheme-holistic-nourishment
   Google Scholar
• National Health Mission, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. Janani Suraksha Yojna. 2018 [cited 2019]. Available from: http://nhm.gov.in/nrhm-components/rmnch-a/maternal-health/janani-suraksha-yojana/background.html
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Global targets 2025 - to improve maternal, infant and young child nutrition. 2018 [cited 2018]. Available from: https://www.who.int/nutrition/global-target-2025/en/
   Google Scholar
• USAID. Partnership for water sanitation and hygiene (wash). 2018. Available from: https://www.usaid.gov/india/water-and-sanitation
   Google Scholar
• Johri M, Subramanian S, Koné GK, et al. Maternal health literacy is associated with early childhood nutritional status in India. J Nutr. 2016;146:1402–1410.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borooah VK. The role of maternal literacy in reducing the risk of child malnutrition in India. J Quant Econ. 2004;2:186–202.
   Google Scholar
• Mittal A, Singh J, Ahluwalia S. Effect of maternal factors on nutritional status of 1–5-year-old children in urban slum population. Indian J Community Med. 2007;32:264.
   Google Scholar
• Panigrahi A, Das SC. Undernutrition and its correlates among children of 3–9 years of age residing in slum areas of Bhubaneswar, India. Sci World J. 2014;2014:1–9. DOI:10.1155/2014/719673
   Google Scholar
• Gupta A, Sarker G, Rout AJ, et al. Risk correlates of diarrhea in children under 5 years of age in slums of Bankura, West Bengal. J Glob Infect Dis. 2015;7:23.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar