How does race/ethnicity influence pharmacological response to asthma therapies?

References

• Ramamoorthy A, Pacanowski MA, Bull J, et al. Racial/ethnic differences in drug disposition and response: review of recently approved drugs. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2015;97:263–273.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Risch N, Burchard E, Ziv E, et al. Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease. Genome Biol. 2002;3:comment2007.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yasuda SU, Zhang L, Huang SM. The role of ethnicity in variability in response to drugs: focus on clinical pharmacology studies. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008;84:417–423.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah RR. Inter-ethnic differences in drug response: implications for drug development and complying with drug regulation. Clin Res Pr Drug Regul Aff. 2015;32:88–98.
   Google Scholar
• Shah RR, Gaedigk A, LLerena A, et al. CYP450 genotype and pharmacogenetic association studies: a critical appraisal. Pharmacogenomics. 2016;17:259–275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fung KL, Hunt RC, Kimchi-Sarfaty C, et al. Genetic Polymorphisms of P-glycoprotein: echoes of Silence. In: George A, ed. ABC transporters - 40 years on. Cham: Springer; 2016. p. 105–134.
   Google Scholar
• Marzolini C, Tirona RG, Kim RB. Pharmacogenomics of the OATP and OAT families. Pharmacogenomics. 2004;5:273–282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang M, Spiegelman D, Kuchiba A, et al. Statistical methods for studying disease subtype heterogeneity. Stat Med. 2016;35(5):782–800.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eshtehardi P, Pamerla M, Mojadidi MK, et al. Addition of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors to beta-blockers has a distinct effect on Hispanics compared with African Americans and whites with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction: a propensity score-matching study. J Card Fail. 2015;21(6):448–456.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jing L, Su L, Bz R. Ethnic background and genetic variation in the evaluation of cancer risk: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2014;9(6):e97522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nguyen AB, Moser R, Chou WY. Race and health profiles in the United States: an examination of the social gradient through the 2009 CHIS adult survey. Public Health. 2014;128:1076–1086.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorman BK, Chu M. Racial and ethnic differences in adult asthma prevalence, problems, and medical care. Ethn Health. 2009;14:527–552.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Law HZ, Oraka E, Mannino DM. The role of income in reducing racial and ethnic disparities in emergency room and urgent care center visits for asthma - United States, 2001-2009. J Asthma. 2011;48:405–413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhan N, Kawachi I, Glymour MM, et al. Time trends in racial and ethnic disparities in asthma prevalence in the United States from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) study (1999-2011). Am J Public Health. 2015;105:1269–1275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis AM, Kreutzer R, Lipsett M, et al. Asthma prevalence in Hispanic and Asian American ethnic subgroups: results from the California healthy kids survey. Pediatrics. 2006;118:e363–e370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camacho-Rivera M, Kawachi I, Bennett GG, et al. Revisiting the Hispanic health paradox: the relative contributions of nativity, country of origin, and race/ethnicity to childhood asthma. J Immigr Minor Health. 2015;17:826–833.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Homa DM, Mannino DM, Lara M. Asthma mortality in U.S. Hispanics of Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban heritage, 1990-1995. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161:504–509.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryc K, Velez C, Karafet T, et al. Colloquium paper: genome-wide patterns of population structure and admixture among Hispanic/Latino populations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107(Suppl 2):8954–8961.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szentpetery SE, Forno E, Canino G, et al. Asthma in Puerto Ricans: lessons from a high-risk population. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2016;138:1556–1558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vergara C, Caraballo L, Mercado D, et al. African ancestry is associated with risk of asthma and high total serum IgE in a population from the Caribbean Coast of Colombia. Hum Genet. 2009;125:565–579.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vergara C, Murray T, Rafaels N, et al. African ancestry is a risk factor for asthma and high total IgE levels in African admixed populations. Genet Epidemiol. 2013;37:393–401.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyenhuis SM, Krishnan JA, Berry A, et al. Race is associated with differences in airway inflammation in patients with asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2017;140:257–265.e11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamblin MT, Thompson EE, Di Rienzo A. Complex signatures of natural selection at the Duffy blood group locus. Am J Hum Genet. 2002;70:369–383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pino-Yanes M, Thakur N, Gignoux CR, et al. Genetic ancestry influences asthma susceptibility and lung function among Latinos. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;135:228–235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen JE, Sutherland TE. Host protective roles of type 2 immunity: parasite killing and tissue repair, flip sides of the same coin. Semin Immunol. 2014;26(4):329–340.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fumagalli M, Pozzoli U, Cagliani R, et al. The landscape of human genes involved in the immune response to parasitic worms. BMC Evol Biol. 2010;10:264.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Figueiredo CA, Barreto ML, Alcantara-Neves NM, et al. Coassociations between IL10 polymorphisms, IL-10 production, helminth infection, and asthma/wheeze in an urban tropical population in Brazil. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;131:1683–1690.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang J, Berenstein EH, Evans RL, et al. Transfection of Syk protein tyrosine kinase reconstitutes high affinity IgE receptor-mediated degranulation in a Syk-negative variant of rat basophilic leukemia RBL-2H3 cells. J Exp Med. 1996;184:71–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bachelet I, Munitz A, Mankutad D, et al. Mast cell costimulation by CD226/CD112 (DNAM-1/Nectin-2): a novel interface in the allergic process. J Biol Chem. 2006;281:27190–27196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernandez-Pacheco N, Flores C, Oh SS, et al. What ancestry can tell us about the genetic origins of inter-ethnic differences in asthma expression. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2016;16:53.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pino-Yanes M, Gignoux CR, Galanter JM, et al. Genomewide association study and admixture mapping reveal new loci associated with total IgE levels in Latinos. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2015;135:1502–1510.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galanter JM, Gignoux CR, Torgerson DG, et al. Genomewide association study and admixture mapping identify different asthma-associated loci in Latinos: the genesenvironments & admixture in Latino Americans study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;134:295–305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willemsen G, van Beijsterveldt TC, van Baal CG, et al. Heritability of self-reported asthma and allergy: A study in adult Dutch twins, siblings and parents. Twin Res Hum Genet. 2008;11:132–142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gwynn RC. Risk factors for asthma in US adults: results from the 2000 behavioral risk factors surveillance system. J Asthma. 2004;41:91–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cazzola M, Rogliani P, Sanduzzi A, et al. Influence of ethnicity on response to asthma drugs. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2015;11:1089–1097.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koo S, Gupta A, Fainardi V, et al. Ethnic variation in response to IM triamcinolone in children with severe therapy-resistant asthma. Chest. 2016;149:98–105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler ME, Castro M, Lehman E, et al. Impact of race on asthma treatment failures in the asthma clinical research network. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;184(11):1247–1253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mersha TB, Abebe T. Self-reported race/ethnicity in the age of genomic research: its potential impact on understanding health disparities. Hum Genomics. 2015;9:1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matera MG, Rinaldi B, Calzetta L, et al. Pharmacogenetic and pharmacogenomic considerations of asthma treatment. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2017;13:1159–1167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Federico M, Covar RA, Brown EE, et al. Racial differences in T-lymphocyte response to glucocorticoids. Chest. 2005;127(2):571–578.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mosteller M, Hosking L, Murphy K, et al. No evidence of large genetic effects on steroid response in asthma patients. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2017;139:797–803.e7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wells KE, Cajigal S, Peterson EL, et al. Assessing differences in inhaled corticosteroid response by self-reported race-ethnicity and genetic ancestry among asthmatic subjects. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2016;137:1364–1369.e2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pennington EJ, Ortega VE, Ampleford EJ, et al. Glucocorticoid pharmacogenetic loci are associated with healthcare utilization in inhaled corticosteroid treated asthma subjects from different ethnic groups [abstract]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017;195:A4972.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmer LJ, Celedon JC, Chapman HA, et al. Genome-wide linkage analysis of bronchodilator responsiveness and post-bronchodilator spirometric phenotypes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Hum Mol Genet. 2003;12:1199–1210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Israel E, Chinchilli VM, Ford JG, et al. Use of regularly scheduled albuterol treatment in asthma: genotype-stratified, randomised, placebo-controlled cross-over trial. Lancet. 2004;364:1505–1512.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maxwell TJ, Ameyaw MM, Pritchard S, et al. Beta-2 adrenergic receptor genotypes and haplotypes in different ethnic groups. Int J Mol Med. 2005;16:573–580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lima JJ. Do genetic polymorphisms alter patient response to inhaled bronchodilators? Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2014;10:1231–1240.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner S, Francis B, Vijverberg S, et al. Childhood asthma exacerbations and the Arg16 β2-receptor polymorphism: a meta-analysis stratified by treatment. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2016;138:107–113.e5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mak ACY, White MJ, Szpiech ZA, et al. Whole genome sequencing of pharmacogenetic drug response in racially and ethnically diverse children with asthma. bioRxiv. 2017. DOI:10.1101/128116
   Google Scholar
• Bleecker ER, Postma DS, Lawrance RM, et al. Effect of ADRB2 polymorphisms on response to longacting beta2-agonist therapy: a pharmacogenetic analysis of two randomised studies. Lancet. 2007;370:2118–2125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson HS, Weiss ST, Bleecker ER, et al. The Salmeterol Multicenter Asthma Research Trial: a comparison of usual pharmacotherapy for asthma or usual pharmacotherapy plus salmeterol. Chest. 2006;129(1):15–26.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mougey E, Lang JE, Allayee H, et al. ALOX5 polymorphism associates with increased leukotriene production and reduced lung function and asthma control in children with poorly controlled asthma. Clin Exp Allergy. 2013;43(5):512–520.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tcheurekdjian H, Via M, De Giacomo A, et al. ALOX5AP and LTA4H polymorphisms modify augmentation of bronchodilator responsiveness by leukotriene modifiers in Latinos. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;126:853–858.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Via M, De Giacomo A, Corvol H, et al. Role of LTA4H and ALOX5AP genes in the risk for asthma in Latinos. Clin Exp Allergy. 2010;40(4):582–589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemanske RF Jr, Mauger DT, Sorkness CA, et al. Step-up therapy for children with uncontrolled asthma receiving inhaled corticosteroids. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(11):975–985.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malka J, Mauger DT, Covar R, et al. Eczema and race as combined determinants for differential response to step-up asthma therapy. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;134(2):483–485.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cardet JC, Louisias M, King TS, et al. Income is an independent risk factor for worse asthma outcomes. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2018;141:754–760.e3.
   Google Scholar
• Lichter DT. Integration or fragmentation? Racial diversity and the American future. Demography. 2013;50:359–391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keet CA, Matsui EC, McCormack MC, et al. Urban residence, neighborhood poverty, race/ ethnicity,and asthma morbidity among children on Medicaid. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2017;140:822–827.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silber JH, Rosenbaum PR, Calhoun SR, et al. Racial disparities in Medicaid asthma hospitalizations. Pediatrics. 2017;139:e20161221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venkat A, Hasegawa K, Basior JM, et al. Race/ethnicity and asthma management among adults presenting to the emergency department. Respirology. 2015;20:994–997.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck AF, Huang B, Auger KA, et al. Explaining racial disparities in child asthma readmission using a causal inference approach. JAMA Pediatr. 2016;170:695–703.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunn RM, Wechsler ME. Personalized asthma therapy in blacks—the role of genetic ancestry. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2016;137:1370–1372.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hull SA, McKibben S, Homer K, et al. Asthma prescribing, ethnicity and risk of hospital admission: an analysis of 35,864 linked primary and secondary care records in East London. NPJ Prim Care Respir Med. 2016;26:16049.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shum M, Poureslami I, Liu J, et al. Perceived barriers to asthma therapy in ethno-cultural communities: the role of culture, beliefs and social support. Health. 2017;9:1029–1046.
   Google Scholar
• Chan AH, Stewart AW, Foster JM, et al. Factors associated with medication adherence in school-aged children with asthma. ERJ Open Res. 2016;2:00087–2015.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Young HN, Len-Rios ME, Brown R, et al. How does patient-provider communication influence adherence to asthma medications? Patient Educ Couns. 2017;100:696–702.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zagaar M, Ndefo UA Medication nonadherence in the Latino population: a challenge and an opportunity for specialized services. 2017 [cited 2017 Nov 15]. Available from: http://www.pharmacytimes.com/news/medication-adherence-in-the-latino-population
   Google Scholar
• Hardie GE, Janson S, Gold WM, et al. Ethnic differences: word descriptors used by African-American and white asthma patients during induced bronchoconstriction. Chest. 2000;117:935–943.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim G, Sellbom M, Ford K-L. Race/ethnicity and measurement equivalence of the everyday discrimination scale. Psychol Assess. 2014;26:892–900.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hunt MO, Wise LA, Jipguep M, et al. Neighborhood racial composition and perceptions of racial discrimination: evidence from the black women’s health study. Soc Psychol Q. 2007;70:272–289.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thakur N, Barcelo NE, Borrell LN, et al. Perceived discrimination associated with asthma and related outcomes in minority youth: the GALA II and SAGE II studies. Chest. 2017;151:804–812.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ciprandi G, Schiavetti I, Rindone E, et al. The impact of anxiety and depression on outpatients with asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2015;115:408–414.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shams MR, Bruce AC, Fitzpatrick AM. Anxiety contributes to poorer asthma outcomes in inner-city black adolescents. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2018;6:227-235.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson S, Borrell LN, Eng C, et al. Self-reported racial/ethnic discrimination and bronchodilator response in African American youth with asthma. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0179091.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haczku A, Panettieri RA Jr. Social stress and asthma: the role of corticosteroid insensitivity. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;125:550–558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller GE, Chen E. Life stress and diminished expression of genes encoding glucocorticoid receptor and β2-adrenergic receptor in children with asthma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103:5496–5501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brehm JM, Ramratnam SK, Tse SM, et al. Stress and bronchodilator response in children with asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2015;192:47–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thakur N, Oh SS, Nguyen EA, et al. Socioeconomic status and childhood asthma in urban minority youths. The GALA II and SAGE II studies. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;188:1202–1209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Kit BK, et al. Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United States, 2011-2012. JAMA. 2014;311(8):806–814.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borrell LN, Nguyen EA, Roth LA, et al. Childhood obesity and asthma control in the GALA II and SAGE II studies. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013;187:697–702.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim S, Camargo CA Jr. Sex-race differences in the relationship between obesity and asthma: the behavioral risk factor surveillance system, 2000. Ann Epidemiol. 2003;13:666–673.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koebnick C, Fischer H, Daley MF, et al. Interacting effects of obesity, race, ethnicity and sex on the incidence and control of adult-onset asthma. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol. 2016;12:50.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weedn AE, Hale JJ, Thompson DM, et al. Trends in obesity prevalence and disparities among low-income children in Oklahoma, 2005-2010. Child Obes. 2014;10:318–325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coogan PF, Palmer JR, O’Connor GT, et al. Body mass index and asthma incidence in the black women’s health study. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;123(1):89–95.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forno E, Lescher R, Strunk R, et al. Decreased response to inhaled steroids in overweight and obese asthmatic children. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;127:741–749.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camargo CA Jr, Sutherland ER, Bailey W, et al. Effect of increased body mass index on asthma risk, impairment and response to asthma controller therapy in African Americans. Curr Med Res Opin. 2010;26(7):1629–1635.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGarry ME, Castellanos E, Thakur N, et al. Obesity and bronchodilator response in Black and Hispanic children and adolescents with asthma. Chest. 2015;147:1591–1598.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akinbami LJ, Moorman JE, Simon AE, et al. Trends in racial disparities for asthma outcomes among children 0 to 17 years, 2001-2010. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;134:547–553.e5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Neill MS, Breton CV, Devlin RB, et al. Air pollution and health: emerging information on susceptible populations. Air Qual Atmos Health. 2012;5:189–201.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gan WQ, Sanderson WT, Browning SR, et al. Different types of housing and respiratory health outcomes. Prev Med Rep. 2017;7:124–129.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hughes HK, Matsui EC, Tschudy MM, et al. Pediatric asthma health disparities: race, hardship, housing, and asthma in a national survey. Acad Pediatr. 2017;17:127–134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pongracic JA, Krouse RZ, Babineau DC, et al. Distinguishing characteristics of difficult-to-control asthma in inner-city children and adolescents. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2016;138:1030–1041.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sordillo JE, Webb T, Kwan D, et al. Allergen exposure modifies the relation of sensitization to fraction of exhaled nitric oxide levels in children at risk for allergy and asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2011;127:1165–72.e5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant T, Aloe C, Perzanowski M, et al. Mouse sensitization and exposure are associated with asthma severity in urban children. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2017;5:1008–1014.e1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tian N, Xue J, Barzyk TM. Evaluating socioeconomic and racial differences in traffic-related metrics in the United States using a GIS approach. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2013;23:215–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowatte G, Lodge CJ, Knibbs LD, et al. Traffic-related air pollution exposure is associated with allergic sensitization, asthma, and poor lung function in middle age. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2017;139:122–129.e1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kam JC, Szefler SJ, Surs W, et al. Combination IL-2 and IL-4 reduces glucocorticoid receptor-binding affinity and T cell response to glucocorticoids. J Immunol. 1993;151:3460–3466.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomson NC. Asthma and smoking-induced airway disease without spirometric COPD. Eur Respir J. 2017;49:1602061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes PJ. Corticosteroid resistance in patients with asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;131:636–645.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clearie K, McKinlay L, Williamson P, et al. Fluticasone/salmeterol combination confers benefits in smoking asthmatics. Chest. 2012;141(2):330–338.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus SC, Chinchilli VM, Rollings NJ, et al. Smoking affects response to inhaled corticosteroids or leukotriene receptor antagonists in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;175(8):783–790.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merzel CR, Isasi CR, Strizich G, et al. Smoking among U.S. Hispanic/Latino adults: the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos. Prev Med. 2015;81:412–419.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Cigarette smoking among adults and trends in smoking cessation - United States, 2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2009;58:1227–1232.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Delva J, Tellez M, Finlayson TL, et al. Cigarette smoking among low-income African Americans: a serious public health problem. Am J Prev Med. 2005;29(3):218–220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Z, Chen C, Niu T, et al. Association of asthma with β2-adrenergic receptor gene polymorphism and cigarette smoking. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;163(6):1404–1409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naqvi M, Tcheurekdjian H, DeBoard JA, et al. Inhaled corticosteroids and augmented bronchodilator responsiveness in Latino and African American asthmatic patients. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2008;100(6):551–557.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zangrilli J, Mansfield LE, Uryniak T, et al. Efficacy of budesonide/formoterol pressurized metered-dose inhaler versus budesonide pressurized metered-dose inhaler alone in Hispanic adults and adolescents with asthma: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2011;107(3):258–265.e2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Louisias M, Phipatanakul W. Managing asthma in low-income, underrepresented minority, and other disadvantaged pediatric populations: closing the gap. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2017;17:68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavord ID, Beasley R, Agusti A, et al. After asthma: redefining airways diseases. Lancet. 2018;391:350–400.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinberg DM, Serebrisky D, Feldman JM. Asthma in children of Caribbean descent living in the inner-city: comparing Puerto Rican and Afro-Caribbean children. Psychol Health Med. 2017;22:633–639.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chinman M, Woodward EN, Curran GM, et al. Harnessing implementation science to increase the impact of health disparity research. Med Care. 2017;55(Suppl 9 2):S16–S23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NHI national institute of allergy and infectious diseases: NIAID programs on asthma in the Inner City. [Cited 2018 Feb 15]. Available from: https://www.niaid.nih.gov/diseases-conditions/inner-city-asthma-programs.
   Google Scholar
• Sutherland ER, Busse WW. Designing clinical trials to address the needs of childhood and adult asthma: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute’s AsthmaNet. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2014;133(1):34–38.e1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar