‘We are going to the right direction… but we are not in ideal world yet’: understanding gender (in)equality within leadership positions in Nordic football governance

References

• Acker, J. 1990. “Hierarchies, Jobs, Bodies: A Theory of Gendered Organizations.” Gender & Society 4 (2): 139–158. doi:10.1177/089124390004002002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adriaanse, J. 2016. “Gender Diversity in the Governance of Sport Associations: The Sydney Scoreboard Global Index of Participation.” Journal of Business Ethics 137 (1): 149–160. doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2550-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bendl, R., and A. Schmidt. 2010. “From ‘Glass Ceilings’ to ‘Firewalls’—Different Metaphors for Describing Discrimination.” Gender, Work & Organization 17 (5): 612–634. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2010.00520.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun, V., V. Clarke, and P. Weate. 2016. “Using Thematic Analysis in Sport and Exercise Research.” In Routledge Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods in Sport and Exercise, edited by B. Smith and A. Sparkes, 191–205. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Brewer, M. B. 2007. “The Importance of Being We: Human Nature and Intergroup Relations.” The American Psychologist 62 (8): 726–738. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.8.728.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bronfenbrenner, U. 1977. “Toward an Experimental Ecology of Human Development.” American Psychologist 32 (7): 513–531. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.32.7.513.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bronfenbrenner, U. 1979. The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bronfenbrenner, U. 1993. “The Ecology of Cognitive Development: Research Models and Fugitive Findings.” In Development in Context: Activity and Thinking in Specific Environments, edited by R. H. Wozniak and K. W. Fisher, 3–24. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Burton, L. J. 2015. “Underrepresentation of Women in Sport Leadership: A Review of Research.” Sport Management Review 18 (2): 155–165. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2014.02.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burton, L. J, and S. Leberman. 2017. “An Evaluation of Current Scholarship in Sport Leadership: Multilevel Perspective.” In Women in Sport Leadership: Research and Practice for Change, edited by L. J. Burton and S. Leberman, 16–32. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Collinson, D. L, and J. Hearn. 1996. “Breaking the Silence: On Men, Masculinities and Managements.” In Men as Managers, Managers as Men, edited by D. L. Collinson and J. Hearn, 1–24. London: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Crouch, M., and H. McKenzie. 2006. “The Logic of Small Samples in Interview-Based Qualitative Research.” Social Science Information 45 (4): 483–499. doi:10.1177/0539018406069584.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham, G. B. 2010. “Understanding the under-Representation of African American Coaches: A Multilevel Perspective.” Sport Management Review 13 (4): 395–406. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2009.07.006.
   Google Scholar
• Cunningham, G. B. 2019. Diversity and Inclusion in Sport Organisations: A Multilevel Perspective. 4th ed. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Cunningham, G. B., and M. Sagas. 2008. “Gender and Sex Diversity in Sport Organizations: Introduction to a Special Issue.” Sex Roles 58 (1–2): 3–9. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9360-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Due Billing, Y., and M. Alvesson. 2000. “Questioning the Notion of Feminine Leadership: A Critical Perspective on the Gender Labelling of Leadership.” Gender, Work and Organization 7 (3): 144–157. doi:10.1111/1468-0432.0010.
   Google Scholar
• Eagly, A. H., and L. L. Carli. 2012. “Women and the Labyrinth of Leadership. Contemporary Issues in Leadership.” In Contemporary Issues in Leadership, edited by W. E. Rosenbach, R. E. Taylor, and M. A. Youndt, 147–162. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
   Google Scholar
• Elling, A., J. Hovden, and A. Knoppers. 2019. Gender Diversity in European Sport Governance. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Fasting, K., T. S. Sand, and H. R. Nordstrand. 2019. “One of the Few: The Experiences of Female Elite-Level Coaches in Norwegian Football.” Soccer & Society 20 (3): 454–470. doi:10.1080/14660970.2017.1331163.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FIFA. 2019. “2019: A breakthrough year for women’s football.” FIFA. Accessed 3 August 2020. https://www.fifa.com/womens-football/news/2019-a-breakthrough-year-for-women-s-football/
   Google Scholar
• Fink, J. S. 2008. “Gender and Sex Diversity in Sport Organizations: Concluding Comments.” Sex Roles 58 (1–2): 146–147. doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9364-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fink, J. S. 2016. “Hiding in Plain Sight: The Embedded Nature of Sexism in Sport.” Journal of Sport Management 30 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1123/jsm.2015-0278.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gram, Karin H. 2021. Increase in female leadership, Statistics Norway. https://www.ssb.no/en/befolkning/artikler-og-publikasjoner/increase-in-female-leadership.
   Google Scholar
• Grappendorf, H, and L. J. Burton. 2017. “The Impact of Bias in Sport Leadership.” In Women in Sport Leadership: Research and Practice for Change, edited by L. Burton and S. Leberman, 47–61. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Greenhaus, J. H., S. Parasuraman, and W. M. Wormley. 1990. “Effects of Race on Organizational Experience, Job Performance Evaluations, and Career Outcomes.” Academy of Management Journal 33 (1): 64–86. doi:10.5465/256352
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hancock, M. G., and M. A. Hums. 2016. “A ‘Leaky Pipeline’: Factors Affecting the Career Development of Senior-Level Female Administrators in NCAA Division I Athletic Departments.” Sport Management Review 19 (2): 198–210. doi:10.1016/j.smr.2015.04.004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hjelseth, A., and J. Hovden. 2014. “Negotiating the Status of Women’s Football in Norway. An Analysis of Online Supporter Discourses.” European Journal for Sport and Society 11 (3): 253–277. doi:10.1080/16138171.2014.11687944.
   Google Scholar
• Hovden, J. 2000. “Heavyweight’ Men and Younger Women? The Gendering of Selection Processes in Norwegian Sport Organizations.” NORA - Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research 8 (1): 17–32. doi:10.1080/080387400408035.
   Google Scholar
• Hovden, J. 2010. “Female Top Leaders—Prisoners of Gender? The Gendering of Leadership Discourses in Norwegian Sports Organizations.” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 2 (2): 189–203. doi:10.1080/19406940.2010.488065.
   Google Scholar
• Hovden, J. 2012. “Discourses and Strategies for the Inclusion of Women in Sport—the Case of Norway.” Sport in Society 15 (3): 287–301. doi:10.1080/17430437.2012.653201.
   Google Scholar
• Kozlowski, S. W. J, and K. J. Klein. 2000. “A Multilevel Approach to Theory and Research in Organizations: Contextual, Temporal, and Emergent Processes.” In Multilevel Theory, Research and Methods in Organizations: Foundations, Extensions, and New Directions, edited by K. J. Klein and S. W. J. Kozlowski, 3–90. San Fransisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Kumra, S., and S. Vinnicombe. 2010. “Impressing for Success: A Gendered Analysis of a Key Social Capital Accumulation Strategy.” Gender, Work & Organization 17 (5): 521–546. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2010.00521.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lämsä, A., and T. Sintonen. 2001. “A Discursive Approach to Understanding Women Leaders in Working Life.” Journal of Business Ethics 34 (3/4): 255–267. doi:10.1023/A:1012504112426.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LaVoi, N. M., and J. K. Dutove. 2012. “Barriers and Supports for Female Coaches: An Ecological Model.” Sports Coaching Review 1 (1): 17–37. doi:10.1080/21640629.2012.695891.
   Google Scholar
• Lehtonen, K., S. Oja, and M. Hakamäki. 2022."Equality in Sports and Physical Activity in Finland in 2021.” Publications of the Ministry of Education Culture 2022: 5. http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-263-815-1
   Google Scholar
• Liff, S., and K. Ward. 2001. “Distorted Views through the Glass Ceiling: The Construction of Women’s Understandings of Promotion and Senior Management Positions.” Gender, Work & Organization 8 (1): 19–36. doi:10.1111/1468-0432.00120.
   Google Scholar
• Mikkonen, M., J. Stenvall, and K. Lehtonen. 2021. “The Paradox of Gender Diversity, Organizational Outcomes, and Recruitment in the Boards of National Governing Bodies of Sport.” Administrative Sciences 11 (4): 141. doi:10.3390/admsci11040141.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miles, M. B, and A. M. Huberman. 1994. Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Norges Fotballforbund. 2021. “Strategiplan 2016–2019” [Strategy]. Norges Fotballforbund. Accessed 15 April 2021. https://www.fotball.no/tema/strategiplan-2020-2023/#173324/
   Google Scholar
• OECD 2018. “Is the Last Mile the Longest?” Economic Gains from Gender Equality in Nordic Countries. Paris, France: OECD Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• O’Reilly, M., and N. Parker. 2013. “Unsatisfactory Saturation’: A Critical Exploration of the Notion of Saturated Sample Sizes in Qualitative Research.” Qualitative Research 13 (2): 190–197. doi:10.1177/1468794112446106.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ottesen, L., B. Skirstad, G. Pfister, and U. Habermann. 2010. “Gender Relations in Scandinavian Sport Organizations—a Comparison of the Situation and the Policies in Denmark, Norway and Sweden.” Sport in Society 13 (4): 657–675. doi:10.1080/17430431003616423.
   Google Scholar
• Patton, M. Q. 2014. Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods: Integrating Theory and Practice. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Pfister, G. 2010. “Are the Women or the Organisations to Blame? Gender Hierarchies in Danish Sports Organisations.” International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics 2 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1080/19406941003634008.
   Google Scholar
• Pfister, G. 2015. “Assessing the Sociology of Sport: On Women and Football.” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 50 (4–5): 563–569. doi:10.1177/1012690214566646.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pullen, A, and S. J. Vachhani. 2018. “Examining the Politics of Gendered Difference in Feminine Leadership: The Absence of ‘Female Masculinity.” In Inclusive Leadership. Palgrave Studies in Leadership and Followership, edited by S. Adapa and A. Sheridan, 125–149. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Pyykkönen, T. 2016. Yhdenvertaisuus ja Tasa-Arvotyö Valtion Liikuntapolitiikassa – Taustaselvitys Valtion Liikuntaneuvostolle ja Sen Yhdenvertaisuus- ja Tasa-Arvojaostolle [Non-Discrimination and Gender Equality Work in State Sports Policy]. New York, NY: National Sports Council Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Sagas, Michael, and, George B Cunningham. 2004. “Does Having “the Right Stuff” Matter? Gender Differences in the Determinants of Career Success among Intercollegiate Athletic Administrators.” Sex Roles 50: 411–421.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sartore, M. L., and G. B. Cunningham. 2007. “Explaining the under-Representation of Women in Leadership Positions of Sport Organizations: A Symbolic Interactionist Perspective.” Quest 59 (2): 244–265. doi:10.1080/00336297.2007.10483551.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schein, E. H. 2004. Organizational Culture and Leadership. 3rd ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Shaw, S., and W. Frisby. 2006. “Can Gender Equity Be More Equitable? Promoting an Alternative Frame for Sport Management Research, Education, and Practice.” Journal of Sport Management 20 (4): 483–509. doi:10.1123/jsm.20.4.483.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw, S., and L. Hoeber. 2003. “A Strong Man is Direct and a Direct Woman is a Bitch’: Gendered Discourses and Their Influence on Employment Roles in Sport Organizations.” Journal of Sport Management 17 (4): 347–375. doi:10.1123/jsm.17.4.347.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheridan, A., and G. Milgate. 2003. “She Says, He Says’: Women’s and Men’s Views of the Composition of Boards.” Women in Management Review 18 (3): 147–154. doi:10.1108/09649420310471109.
   Google Scholar
• Skille, E. Å. 2014. “Sport in the Welfare State: Still a Male Preserve: A Theoretical Analysis of Norwegian Football Management.” European Journal for Sport and Society 11 (4): 389–402. doi:10.1080/16138171.2014.11687974.
   Google Scholar
• Stake, R. 2003. “Case Studies.” In Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry. 2nd ed., edited by N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln, 134–164. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Stangor, C. 2009. “The Study of Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination within Social Psychology: A Quick History of Theory and Research.” In Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination, edited by T. D. Nelson, 1–23. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Suomen Palloliitto. 2016. “Strategia 2016–2020 [Strategy].” Suomen Palloliitto. https://www.palloliitto.fi/info/palloliitto/visio-missio-strategia
   Google Scholar
• Suomen Palloliitto. 2019. “Yhdenvertaisuussuunnitelma 2019–2020 [Equality Plan].” Suomen Palloliitto. https://www.palloliitto.fi/info/palloliitto/visio-missio-strategia/yhdenvertaisuussuunnitelma
   Google Scholar
• Tharenou, P. 2005. “Women’s Advancement in Management: What is Known and Future Areas to Address.” In Supporting Women’s Career Advancement: Challenges and Opportunities, edited by R. J. Burke and M. C. Mattis, 31–57. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
   Google Scholar
• Valenti, M., N. Scelles, and S. Morrow. 2018. “Women’s Football Studies: An Integrative Review.” Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal 8 (5): 511–528. doi:10.1108/SBM-09-2017-0048.
   Google Scholar
• Vinnicombe, S., and V. Singh. 2002. “Sex Role Stereotyping and Requisites of Successful Top Managers.” Women in Management Review 17 (3/4): 120–130. doi:10.1108/09649420210425264.
   Google Scholar
• Welford, J. 2011. “Tokenism, Ties and Talking Too Quietly: Women’s Experiences in Non‐Playing Football Roles.” Soccer & Society 12 (3): 365–381. doi:10.1080/14660970.2011.568103.
   Google Scholar
• World Economic Forum. 2019. Global Gender Gap Report 2020. Cologny, Switzerland: World Economic Forum.
   Google Scholar
• Yin, R. K. 2018. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods. 6th ed. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar