Going beyond ethnoracial discrimination and social support in accounting for psychological adjustment: Evidence for the importance of hope as a positive psychological construct in multiethnoracial adults

References

• Adams, V. H., III, Rand, K. L., Kahle, K., Snyder, C. R., Berg, C., King, E. A., & Rodriguez-Hanley, A. (2003). African Americans’ hope and coping with racism stressors. In R. Jacoby & G. Keinan (Eds.), Between stress and hope: From a disease-centered to a health centered perspective (pp. 235–249). Westport, CT: Praeger.
   Google Scholar
• Adler, A. 1923. Understanding human nature (Trans. W. B. Wolfe). London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Allport, G. W. (1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation. New York: Holt.
   Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association. (2017). Multicultural guidelines: An ecological approach to context, identity, and intersectionality. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/about/policy/multicultural-guidelines.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Babyak, M. A., Snyder, C. R., & Yoshinobu, L. (1993). Psychometric properties of the Hope Scale: A confirmatory factor analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 27, 154–169.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavior change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bass, L. A., & Stein, C. H. (1997). Comparing the structure and stability of network ties using the social support questionnaire and the social network list. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 14, 123–132.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, L., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561–571.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brackett, K. P., Marcus, A., McKenzie, N. J., Mullins, L. C., Tang, X., & Allen, A. M. (2006). The effects of multiracial identification on students’ perceptions of racism. The Social Science Journal, 43, 437–444.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campos, B., & Kim, H. S. (2017). Incorporating the cultural diversity of family and close relationships into the study of health. American Psychologist, 72, 543–554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campos, B., Ullman, J. B., Aguilera, A., & Dunkel Schetter, C. (2014). Familism and psychological health. The intervening role of closeness and social support. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20, 191–201.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cano, M. A., Castro, Y., de Dios, M. A., Schwartz, S. J., Lorenzo-Blanco, E. I., Roncancio, A., & Zamboanga, B. L. (2016). Associations of ethnic discrimination with symptoms of anxiety and depression among Hispanic emerging adults: A moderated mediation model. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 29, 699–707.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, E. C. (2017). Applying the broaden-and-build model of positive emotions to social problem solving: Does feeling good (vs. feeling bad) influence problem orientation, problem-solving skills, or both? Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 36, 380–395.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, E. C., & Banks, K. H. (2007). The color and texture of hope: Some preliminary findings and implications for hope theory and counseling among diverse racial/ethnic groups. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 94–103.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chang, E. C., Chang, O. D., Rollock, D., Lui, P. P., Watkins, A. F., Hirsch, J. K., & Jeglic, E. L. (in press). Hope above racial discrimination and social support in accounting for positive and negative psychological adjustment in African American adults: Is ‘knowing you can do it’ as important as ‘knowing how you can’? Cognitive Therapy and Research.
   Google Scholar
• Chang, E. C., Downey, C. A., Hirsch, J. K., & Lin, N. J. (2016). Introduction to positive psychology in racial and ethnic groups: A second call to action! In E. C. Chang, C. A. Downey, J. K. Hirsch, & N. J. Lin (Eds.), Positive psychology in racial and ethnic groups: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 3–12). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Chang, E. C., Martos, T., Sallay, V., Chang, O. D., Wright, K. M., Najarian, A. S.-M., & Lee, J. (2017). Examining optimism and hope as protective factors of suicide risk in Hungarian college students: Is risk highest for those lacking positive psychological protection? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 41, 278–288.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, E. C., Yu, E. A., & Hirsch, J. K. (2013). On the confluence of optimism and hope on depressive symptoms in primary care patients: Does doubling up on bonum futurum proffer any added benefits? The Journal of Positive Psychology, 8, 314–321.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang, E. C., Yu, T., Chang, O. D., & Hirsch, J. K. (2016). Hope and trauma: Examining a diathesis-stress model in predicting depressive and anxious symptoms in college students. Personality and Individual Differences, 96, 52–54.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chao, R. C.-L., Mallinckrodt, B., & Wei, M. (2012). Co-occurring presenting problems in African American college clients reporting racial discrimination distress. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43, 199–207.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheavens, J. S., Feldman, D. B., Gum, A., Michael, S. T., & Snyder, C. R. (2006). Hope therapy in a community sample: A pilot investigation. Social Indicators Research, 77, 61–78.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi, Y., Harachi, T. W., Gillmore, M. R., & Catalano, R. F. (2006). Are multiracial adolescents at greater risk? Comparisons of rates, patterns, and correlates of substance use and violence between monoracial and multiracial adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76, 86–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805–816.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cobb, C. L., Xie, D., Meca, A., & Schwartz, S. J. (2017). Acculturation, discrimination, and depression among unauthorized Latinos/as in the United States. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 23, 258–269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (rev. ed.). New York: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310–357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danoff-Burg, S., Prelow, H. M., & Swenson, R. R. (2004). Hope and life satisfaction in Black college students coping with race-related stress. Journal of Black Psychology, 30, 208–228.
   Google Scholar
• Davidson, C. L., Wingate, L. R., Slish, M., & Rasmussen, K. A. (2010). The great black hope: Hope and its relation to suicide risk among African Americans. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 40, 170–180.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards, L. M., & Lopez, S. J. (2006). Perceived family support, acculturation, and life satisfaction in Mexican American youth: A mixed-methods exploration. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 279–287.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218–226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaither, S. E. (2015). “Mixed” results: Multiracial research and identity explorations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 24, 114–119.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giamo, L. S., Schmitt, M. T., & Outten, H. R. (2012). Perceived discrimination, group identification, and life satisfaction among multiracial people: A test of the rejection-identification model. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18, 319–328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez, R., McLaren, S., Sharp, M., Smith, C., Hearn, K., & Turner, L. (2015). Evaluation of the bifactor structure of the Dispositional Hope Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 97, 191–199.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris, T. L., & Molock, S. D. (2000). Cultural orientation, family cohesion and family support in suicide ideation and depression among African American college students. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 30, 341–353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henson, J. M., Derlega, V. J., Pearson, M. R., Ferrer, R., & Holmes, K. (2013). African American students’ responses to racial discrimination: How race-based rejection sensitivity and social constraints are related to psychological reactions. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 32, 504–529.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirsch, B. J. (1980). Natural support systems and coping with major life changes. American Journal of Community Psychology, 8, 159–172.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirsch, J. K., Visser, P. L., Chang, E. C., & Jeglic, E. L. (2012). Race and ethnic differences in hope and hopelessness as moderators of the association between depressive symptoms and suicidal behavior. Journal of American College Health, 60, 115–125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hwang, W.-C., & Goto, S. (2008). The impact of perceived racial discrimination on the mental health of Asian American and Latino college students. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14, 326–335.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeglic, E. L., Pepper, C. M., Vanderhoff, H. A., & Ryabchenko, K. A. (2007). An analysis of suicidal ideation in a college sample. Archives of Suicide Research, 11, 41–56.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Joiner, T. (2005). Why people die by suicide. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Joiner, T. E., Jr., & Coyne, J. (Eds). (1999). The interactional nature of depression: Advances in interpersonal approaches. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Kim, I. (2014). The role of critical ethnic awareness and social support in the discrimination-depression relationship among Asian Americans: Path analysis. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20, 52–60.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klonoff, E. A., & Landrine, H. (1999). Cross-validation of the Schedule of Racist Events. Journal of Black Psychology, 25, 231–254.
   Google Scholar
• Kwon, P. (2000). Hope and dysphoria: The moderating role of defense mechanisms. Journal of Personality, 68, 199–223.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landrine, H., Klonoff, E. A., Corral, I., Fernandez, S., & Roesch, S. (2006). Conceptualizing and measuring ethnic discrimination in health research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29, 79–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S. (1961). Adjustment and personality. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
   Google Scholar
• Lopez, S. J. (2013). Making hope happen: Create the future you want for yourself and others. New York: Atria Books.
   Google Scholar
• Lopez, S. J., Snyder, C. R., & Pedrotti, J. T. (2003). Hope: Many definitions, many measures. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Positive psychological assessment: A handbook of models and measures (pp. 91–106). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Lorenzo-Blanco, E. I., Bares, C. B., & Delva, J. (2013). Parenting, family processes, relationships, and parental support in multiracial and multiethnic families: An exploratory study of youth perceptions. Family Relations: an Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 62, 125–139.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lou, E., & LaLonde, R. N. (2015). Signs of transcendence? A changing landscape of multiraciality in the 21st century. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 45, 85–95.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magaletta, P. R., & Oliver, J. M. (1999). The hope construct, will, and ways: Their relations with self-efficacy, optimism, and general well-being. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55, 539–551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, T. J., Miller, M. L., Metzger, R. L., & Borkovec, T. D. (1990). Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 487–495.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Navarrette, V., & Jenkins, S. R. (2011). Cultural homelessness, multiminority status, ethnic identity development, and self esteem. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35, 791–804.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neighbors, H. W., Hudson, D. L., & Bullard, K. M. (2012). The challenge of understanding the mental health of African Americans: The risks and rewards of segregation, support, and John Henryism. In E. C. Chang & C. A. Downey (Eds.), Handbook of race and development in mental health (pp. 45–66). New York: Springer Science + Business Media.
   Google Scholar
• Nguyen, A. W., Chatters, L. M., Taylor, R. J., & Mouzon, D. M. (2016). Social support from family and friends and subjective well-being in older African Americans. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17, 959–979.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ojeda, L., Navarro, R. L., Rosales Meza, R., & Arbona, C. (2012). Too Latino and not Latino enough: The role of ethnicity-related stressors on Latino college students’ life satisfaction. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 11, 14–28.
   Google Scholar
• Pollock, E. D., Kazman, J. B., & Deuster, P. (2015). Family functioning and stress in African American families: A strength-based approach. Journal of Black Psychology, 41, 144–169.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prelow, H. M., Mosher, C. E., & Bowman, M. A. (2006). Perceived racial discrimination, social support, and psychological adjustment among African American college students. Journal of Black Psychology, 32, 442–454.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quillian, L., & Redd, R. (2009). The friendship networks of multiracial adolescents. Social Science Research, 38, 279–295.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivera, F. I. (2007). Contextualizing the experience of young Latino adults: Acculturation, social support and depression. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 9, 237–244.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ryan, R. M., & Frederick, C. (1997). On energy, personality, and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. Journal of Personality, 65, 529–565.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanchez, D. T., Shih, M., & Garcia, J. A. (2009). Juggling multiple racial identities: Malleable racial identification and psychological well-being. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 243–254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanders-Phillips, K. (2009). Racial discrimination: A continuum of violence exposure for children of color. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12, 174–195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider, K. T., Hitlan, R. T., & Radhakrishnan, P. (2000). An examination of the nature and correlates of ethnic harassment experiences in multiple contexts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 3–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snyder, C. R. (1994). The psychology of hope: You can get there from here. New York: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Snyder, C. R. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry, 13, 249–275.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snyder, C. R. (2004). Hope and the other strengths: Lessons from animal farm. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 624–627.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S. T., … Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 570–585.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snyder, C. R., Hoza, B., Pelham, W. E., Rapoff, M., Ware, L., Danovsky, M., & Stahl, K. J. (1997). The development and validation of the Children’s Hope Scale. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 22, 399–421.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snyder, C. R., Sympson, S. C., Michael, S. T., & Cheavens, J. (2001). Optimism and hope constructs: Variants on a positive expectancy theme. In E. C. Chang (Ed.), Optimism and pessimism: Implications for theory, research, and practice (pp. 101–125). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
   Google Scholar
• Soto, J. A., Armenta, B. E., Perez, C. R., Zamboanga, B. L., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Lee, R., & Ham, L. S. (2012). Strength in numbers? Cognitive reappraisal tendencies and psychological functioning among Latinos in the context of oppression. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18, 384–394.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong, E. M. W., Fredrickson, B. L., Chang, W., & Lim, Z. X. (2010). Re-examining hope: The roles of agency thinking and pathways thinking. Cognition and Emotion, 24, 1207–1215.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Census Bureau. (2015, March). Projections of the size and composition of the U.S. population: 2014 to 2060. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau News.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Census Bureau. (2016). Selected population profile in the United States, 2016 American community survey 1-year estimates. Retrieved from https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_16_1YR_S0201&prodType=table.
   Google Scholar
• Utsey, S. O., Ponterotto, J. G., Reynolds, A. L., & Cancelli, A. A. (2000). Racial discrimination, coping, life satisfaction, and self-esteem among African Americans. Journal of Counseling & Development, 78, 72–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465–490.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whaley, A. L., & Francis, K. (2006). Behavioral health in multiracial adolescents: The role of Hispanic/Latino ethnicity. Public Health Reports, 121, 169–174.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, P. T. P. (2011). Positive psychology 2.0: Towards a balanced interactive model of the good life. Canadian Psychology, 52, 69–81.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu, K., & Chang, E. C. (in press). Feeling good –and feeling bad– affects social problem solving: A test of the broaden-and-build model in Asian Americans. Asian American Journal of Psychology.
   Google Scholar
• Yang, H., & Chang, E. C. (2016). Is the PGIS-II redundant with the hope scale?: Evidence for the utility of the PGIS-II in predicting psychological adjustment in adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 94, 124–129.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoo, H. C., Jackson, K. F., Guevarra, R. P., Jr., Miller, M. J., & Blair, H. (2016). Construction and initial validation of the Multiracial Experiences Measure (MEM). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63, 198–209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoo, H. C., & Lee, R. M. (2005). Ethnic identity and approach-type coping as moderators of the racial discrimination/well-being relation in Asian Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 497–506.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu, E. A., & Chang, E. C. (2016). Optimism/pessimism and future orientation as predicors of suicidal ideation: Are there ethnic differences? Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22, 572–579.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar