657
Views
19
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Male circumcision for protection against HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa: The evidence in favour justifies the implementation now in progress

, , , &
Pages 639-666 | Received 17 Jan 2014, Accepted 13 Aug 2014, Published online: 23 Jan 2015

References

  • AAP Task Force on Circumcision. (2012). Male circumcision: Technical report. Pediatrics, 130, e756–e785. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-1990
  • AAP Task Force on Circumcision 2012. (2013). The AAP Task Force on Neonatal Circumcision: A call for respectful dialogue. Journal of Medical Ethics, 39, 442–443. doi:10.1136/medethics-2013-101456
  • Aboud, F. E., & Singla, D. R. (2012). Challenges to changing health behaviours in developing countries: A critical overview. Social Science & Medicine, 75, 589–594. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.04.009
  • Aggleton, P. (2007). ‘Just a snip’?: A social history of male circumcision. Reproductive Health Matters, 15(29), 15–21. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(07)29303-6
  • Agha, S., Kusanthan, T., Longfield, K., Klein, M., & Berman, J. (2002, July). Reasons for non-use of condoms in eight countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Poster session presented at the meeting of The XIV International AIDS Conference, Barcelona, Spain.
  • Agius, P. A., Pitts, M. K., Smith, A. M., & Mitchell, A. (2010). Sexual behaviour and related knowledge among a representative sample of secondary school students between 1997 and 2008. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 34, 467–481. doi:10.1111/j.1753-6405.2010.00593.x
  • Agosti, J. M., & Goldie, S. J. (2007). Introducing HPV vaccine in developing countries—Key challenges and issues. New England Journal of Medicine, 356, 1908–1910. doi:10.1056/NEJMp078053
  • Agot, K. E., Kiarie, J. N., Nguyen, H. Q., Odhiambo, J. O., Onyango, T. M., & Weiss, N. S. (2007). Male circumcision in Siaya and Bondo districts, Kenya: Prospective cohort study to assess behavioral disinhibition following circumcision. Journal of Acquired Immune Defıciency Syndrome, 44(1), 66–70. doi:10.1097/01.qai.0000242455.05274.20
  • American Jewish Committee Berlin Office. (2012). Facts & myths in the circumcision debate. Retrieved from http://www.ajc.org/atf/cf/%7B42d75369-d582-4380-8395-d25925b85eaf%7D/AJC_BERLIN_BRIEFING_FACTS_AND_MYTHS_ABOUT_THE_CIRCUMCISION_CONTROVERSY_2012.PDF
  • Anderson, J., Wilson, D., Templeton, D. J., Grulich, A., Carter, R., & Kaldor, J. (2009). Cost-effectiveness of adult circumcision in a resource-rich setting for HIV prevention among men who have sex with men. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 200, 1803–1812. doi:10.1086/648472
  • Angulo, J. C., & Garcia-Diez, M. (2009). Male genital representation in paleolithic art: Erection and circumcision before history. Urology, 74(1), 10–14. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2009.01.010
  • Aral, S. O., & Peterman, T. A. (1998). Do we know the effectiveness of behavioural interventions? Lancet, 351, S33–S36. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)90010-1
  • Auvert, B., Sobngwi-Tambekou, J., Taljaard, D., Lagarde, E., & Puren, A. (2006). Authors’ reply. Public Library of Science Medicine, 3, e67. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.003006
  • Auvert, B., Taljaard, D., Lagarde, E., Sobngwi-Tambekou, J., Sitta, R., & Puren, A. (2005). Randomized, controlled intervention trial of male circumcision for reduction of HIV infection risk: The ANRS 1265 Trial. Public Library of Science Medicine, 2, 1112–1122. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020298
  • Auvert, B., Taljaard, D., Rech, D., Lissouba, P., Singh, B., Shabangu, C., … Lewis, D. (2011). Effect of the Orange Farm (South Africa) male circumcision roll-out (ANRS-12126) on the spread of HIV. 6th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention, 17–20 July, Rome, Italy. WELBC02. Retrieved from http://pag.ias2011.org/abstracts.aspx?aid=4792
  • Auvert, B., Taljaard, D., Rech, D., Lissouba, P., Singh, B., Bouscaillou, J., … Lewis, D. (2013). Association of the ANRS-12126 Male Circumcision Project with HIV levels among men in a South African township: Evaluation of effectiveness using cross-sectional surveys. Public Library of Science Medicine, 10, e1001509. doi:0.1371/journal.pmed.1001509
  • Ayiga, N., & Letamo, G. (2011). Impact of male circumcision on HIV risk compensation through the impediment of condom use in Botswana. African Health Sciences, 11, 550–559. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3362967/
  • Baeten, J. M., Donnell, D., Kapiga, S. H., Ronald, A., John-Stewart, G., Inambao, M., … Celum, C. (2010). Male circumcision and risk of male-to-female HIV-1 transmission: Multinational prospective study in African HIV-1-serodiscordant couples. AIDS, 24, 737–744. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e32833616e0
  • Bailey, R. C., Moses, S., Parker, C. B., Agot, K., Maclean, I., Krieger, J. N., … Ndinya-Achola, J. O. (2007). Male circumcision for HIV prevention in young men in Kisumu, Kenya: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 369, 643–646. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17321310
  • Bailey, R. C., Moses, S., Parker, C. B., Agot, K., MacLean, I., Kreiger, J. N., … Ndinya-Achola, J. O. (2010). The protective effect of adult male circumcision against HIV acquisition is sustained for at least 54 months: Results from the Kisumu, Kenya trial. Retrieved from http://pag.aids2010.org/Abstracts.aspx?AID=17707
  • Baltussen, R., & Niessen, L. (2006). Priority setting of health interventions: The need for multi-criteria decision analysis. Cost Effectiveness and Resource Allocation, 4(1), 14. doi:10.1186/1478-7547-4-14
  • Banerjee, J., Klausner, J. D., Halperin, D. T., Wamai, R., Schoen, E. J., Moses, S., … Bowa, K. (2011). Circumcision denialism unfounded and unscientific. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 40(3), e11–e12. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2010.12.005
  • Bankole, A., Ahmed, F. H., Neema, S., Ouedraogo, C., & Konyani, S. (2007). Knowledge of correct condom use and consistency of use among adolescents in four countries in sub-Saharan Africa. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 11, 197–220. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18458741
  • Banks, G. (2009). Evidence-based policy making: What is it? How do we get it? (ANU Public Lecture Series, presented by ANZSOG, 4 February), Productivity Commission, Canberra. Retrieved from http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/85836/20090204-evidence-based-policy.pdf
  • Bärnighausen, T., Bloom, D. E., & Humair, S. (2012). Economics of antiretroviral treatment vs. circumcision for HIV prevention. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109, 21271–21276. doi:10.1073/pnas.1209017110
  • Bates, M. J., Ziegler, J. B., Kennedy, S. E., Mindel, A., Wodak, A. D., Zoloth, L. S., … Morris, B. J. (2013). Recommendation by a law body to ban infant male circumcision has serious worldwide implications for pediatric practice and human rights. BMC Pediatrics, 13(1), 136. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2013.02.027
  • Behague, D., Tawiah, C., Rosato, M., Some, T., & Morrison, J. (2009). Evidence-based policy-making: The implications of globally-applicable research for context-specific problem-solving in developing countries. Social Science & Medicine, 69, 1539–1546. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.08.006
  • Bell, K. (2014). HIV prevention: Making male circumcision the ‘right’ tool for the job. Global Public Health. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/17441692.2014.903428
  • Ben, K. L., Xu, J. C., Lu, L., Lu, N. Q., Cheng, Y., Tao, J., … Li, P. S. (2009). 男性包皮环切是艾滋病预防和生殖健康的一种’外科疫苗’ [Male circumcision is an effective ‘surgical vaccine’ for HIV prevention and reproductive health]. Zhonghua Nan Ke Xue, 15, 395–402. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19514549
  • Ben-Yami, H. (2013). Circumcision: What should be done? Journal of Medical Ethics, 39, 459–462. doi:10.1136/medethics-2012-101274
  • Berer, M. (2007). Male circumcision for HIV prevention: Perspectives on gender and sexuality. Reproductive Health Matters, 5, 45–48. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(07)29304-8
  • Bertrand, J. T., O’Reilly, K., Denison, J., Anhang, R., & Sweat, M. (2006). Systematic review of the effectiveness of mass communication programs to change HIV/AIDS-related behaviors in developing countries. Health Education Research, 21, 567–597. doi:10.1093/her/cyl036
  • Bertrand, J. T., Rech, D., Aduda, D., Frade, S., Loolpapit, M., Machaku, M. D., … Farrell, M. (2013). Systematic monitoring of the voluntary medical male circumcision scale-up in Eastern and Southern Africa (SYMMACS): Final report of results from Kenya, South Africa, Tanzania and Zimbabwe. Baltimore, MD: USAID|Project Search: Research to Prevention.
  • Boyle, G. J., & Hill, G. (2011). Sub-Saharan African randomized clinical trials into male circumcision and HIV transmission: Methodological, ethical and legal concern. Journal of Law and Medicine, 19, 316–334. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22320006
  • Brownson, R. C., Chriqui, J. F., & Stamatakis, K. A. (2009). Understanding evidence-based public health policy. American Journal of Public Health, 99, 1576–1583. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2008.156224
  • Buvé, A., Caraël, M., Hayes, R. J., Auvert, B., Ferry, B., Robinson, N. J., … Laga, M. (2001). Study Group on Heterogeneity of HIV Epidemics in African Cities: Multicentre study on factors determining differences in rate of spread of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa: Methods and prevalence of HIV infection. AIDS, 15, S5–S14. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11686465
  • Byakika-Tusiime, J. (2008). Circumcision and HIV infection: Assessment of causality. AIDS Behavior, 12, 835–841. doi:10.1007/s10461-008-9453-6
  • Cameron, D. W., Simonsen, J. N., D’Costa, L. J., Ronald, A. R., Maitha, G. M., Gakinya, M. N., … Brunham, R. C. (1989). Female to male transmission of human immunideficiency virus type 1: Risk factors for seroconversion in men. Lancet, 2, 403–407. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2569597
  • Castellsague, X., Albero, G., Cleries, R., & Bosch, F. X. (2007). HPV and circumcision: A biased, inaccurate and misleading meta-analysis. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 55, 91–93. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17433445
  • Center for Global Health Policy. (2010). Medical male circumcision as HIV prevention: Follow the evidence: The case for aggressive scale up. Retrieved from http://www.idsaglobalhealth.org/uploadedFiles/GlobalHealth/MC%20Issue%20Brief.pdf
  • Chan, M. (2012). From new estimates to better data. Lancet, 380, 2054. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62135-7
  • Chigwedere, P., Seage, 3rd, G. R., Gruskin, S., Lee, T. H., & Essex, M. (2008). Estimating the lost benefits of antiretroviral drug use in South Africa. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 49, 410–415. doi:10.1097/QAI.0b013e31818a6cd5
  • Chinkhumba, J., Godlonton, S., & Thornton, R. (2014). The demand for medical male circumcision. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 6, 152–177. doi:10.1257/app.6.2.152
  • Clark, P. A., Eisenman, J., & Szapor, S. (2007). Mandatory neonatal male circumcision in Sub-Saharan Africa: Medical and ethical analysis. Medical Science Monitor, 13, RA205–213. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18049444
  • Cohen, M. S., & Baden, L. R. (2012). Preexposure prophylaxis for HIV—Where do we go from here? New England Journal of Medicine, 367, 459–461. doi:10.1056/NEJMe1207438
  • Cohen, M. S., Chen, Y. Q., McCauley, M., Gamble, T., Hosseinipour, M. C., Kumarasamy, N., … Fleming, T. R. (2011). Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. New England Journal of Medicine, 365, 493–505. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1105243
  • Collins, H. (2009). We cannot live by skepticism alone. Nature, 458(7234), 30–31. doi:10.1038/458030a
  • Colvin, M., Gorgens-Albino, M., & Kasedde, S. (2008). Analysis of HIV prevention response and modes of HIV transmission: The UNAIDS-GAMET-supported synthesis process. Johannesburg: UNAIDS Regional Support Team Eastern and Southern Africa. Retrieved from http://www.unaidsrstesa.org/sites/default/files/modesoftransmission/analysis_hiv_prevention_response_and_mot.pdf
  • Cox, G., & Morris, B. J. (2012). Why circumcision: From pre-history to the twenty first-century. In D. A. Bolnick, M. A. Koyle, & A. Yosha (Eds.), Surgical guide to circumcision (pp. 243–259). London: Springer.
  • Crosby, R. A., Ricks, J., & Young, A. (2012). Condom migration resulting from circumcision, microbicides and vaccines: Brief review and methodological considerations. Sexual Health, 9(1), 96–102. doi:10.1071/SH11091
  • Darbes, L. A., Kennedy, G. E., Peersman, G., Zohrabyan, L., & Rutherford, G. W. (2002). Systematic review of HIV behavioral prevention research in Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders. HIV InSite Knowledge Base Chapter. Retrieved from http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/InSite?page=kb-00&doc=kb-07-04-10
  • Darby, R., & Cozijn, J. (2013). The British royal family’s circumcision tradition: Genesis and evolution of a contemporary legend. SAGE Open, 3, 1–10. doi:10.1177/2158244013508960
  • Das, P., & Samarasekera, U. (2012). The story of GBD 2010: A ‘super-human’ effort. Lancet, 380, 2067–2070. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23259158
  • de Camargo, Jr, K. R., de Oliveira Mendonça, A. L., Perrey, C., & Giami, A. (2013). Male circumcision and HIV: A controversy study on facts and values. Global Public Health, 8, 769–783. doi:10.1080/17441692.2013.817599
  • de Wit, J. B. F., Aggleton, P., Myers, T., & Crewe, M. (2011). The rapidly changing paradigm of HIV prevention: Time to strengthen social and behavioural approaches. Health Education Research, 26, 381–392. doi:10.1093/her/cyr021
  • Dickson, K. E., Tran, N. T., Samuelson, J. L., Njeuhmeli, E., Cherutich, P., Dick, B., … Hankins, C. A. (2011). Voluntary medical male circumcision: A framework analysis of policy and program implementation in Eastern and Southern Africa. Public Library of Science Medicine, 8, e1001133. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001133
  • Dionne, K. Y., & Poulin, M. (2013). Ethnic identity, region and attitudes towards male circumcision in a high HIV-prevalence country. Global Public Health, 8, 607–618. doi:10.1080/17441692.2013.790988
  • Dowsett, G. W., & Couch, M. (2007). Male circumcision and HIV prevention: Is there really enough of the right kind of evidence? Reprod Health Matters, 15, 33–44.
  • Drain, P. K., Halperin, D. T., Hughes, J. P., Klausner, J. D., & Bailey, R. C. (2006). Male circumcision, religion and infectious diseases: An ecologic analysis of 118 developing countries. BMC Infectious Diseases, 6, 172. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-6-172
  • Duffy, K., Galukande, M., Wooding, N., Dea, M., & Coutinho, A. (2013). Reach and cost-effectiveness of the PrePex device for safe male circumcision in Uganda. Public Library of Science One, 8, e63134. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0063134
  • Ekenze, S. O., & Ezomike, U. O. (2013). Complications of neonatal circumcision requiring surgical intervention in a developing country. Journal of Tropical Pediatrics, 59, 292–297. doi:10.1093/tropej/fmt020
  • El Bcheraoui, C., Zhang, X., Cooper, C. S., Rose, C. E., Kilmarx, P. H., & Chen, R. T. (2014). Rates of adverse events associated with male circumcision in US medical settings, 2001 to 2010. JAMA Pediatrics, 168, 625. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.5414
  • Fink, A. J. (1986). A possible explanation for heterosexual male infection with AIDS. New England Journal of Medicine, 315, 1167.
  • Foss, A. M., Hossain, M., Vickerman, P. T., & Watts, C. H. (2007). A systematic review of published evidence on intervention impact on condom use in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 83, 510–516. doi:10.1136/sti.2007.027144
  • Frederiksen, B. F., Kenyatta, J., Bonaparte, M., & Malinowski, B. (2008). Clitoridectomy and female sexuality. History Workshop Journal, 65(spring issue), 23–48. doi:10.1093/hwj/dbn013
  • Galarraga, O., Colchero, M. A., Wamai, R. G., & Bertozzi, S. M. (2009). HIV prevention cost-effectiveness: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 9(Suppl. 1), S5. doi:10.1097/01.aids.0000327623.31856.45
  • Galbraith, J. S., Ochieng, A., Mwalili, S., Emusu, D., Mwandi, Z., Kim, A. A., … Cherutich, P. (2014). Status of voluntary medical male circumcision in Kenya: Findings from 2 nationally representative surveys in Kenya, 2007 and 2012. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 66(Suppl. 1), S37–S45. doi:10.1097/QAI.0000000000000121
  • Ganor, Y., & Bomsel, M. (2011). HIV-1 transmission in the male genital tract. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 65, 284–291. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0897.2010.00933.x
  • Ganor, Y., Zhou, Z., Tudor, D., Schmitt, A., Vacher-Lavenu, M.-C., Gibault, L., … Bomsel, M. (2010). Within 1 h, HIV-1 uses viral synapses to enter efficiently the inner, but not outer, foreskin mucosa and engages Langerhans-T cell conjugates. Mucosal Immunology, 3, 506–522. doi:10.1038/mi.2010.32
  • Gasasira, R. A., Sarker, M., Tsague, L., Nsanzimana, S., Gwiza, A., Mbabazi, J., … Mugwaneza, P. (2012). Determinants of circumcision and willingness to be circumcised by Rwandan men. BMC Public Health, 12(1), 134. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030517
  • Gebbie, K. M. (2009). Science and policy: A perpetual dilemma. AIDS Reader, 19, 100–101.
  • Geibel, S. (2013). Condoms and condiments: Compatibility and safety of personal lubricants and their use in Africa. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16, 18531. doi:10.7448/IAS.16.1.18531
  • Gersovitz, M. (2005). The HIV epidemic in four African countries seen through the demographic and health surveys. Journal of African Economics, 14, 191–246. doi:10.1093/jae/eji002
  • Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. (2013). Cost of inaction: A report on how inadequate investment in the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria will affect millions of lives. Retrieved from http://www.hereiamcampaign.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/COST-OF-INACTION-Sep-12th-2013.pdf
  • Golden, M. R., & Wasserheit, J. N. (2009). Prevention of viral sexually transmitted infections—Foreskin at the forefront. New England Journal of Medicine, 360, 1349–1351. doi:10.1056/NEJMe0900762
  • Gollaher, D. (2000). A history of the worlds most controversial surgery. New York, NY: Basic Books.
  • Gomez, G. B., Borquez, A., Case, K. K., Wheelock, A., Vassall, A., & Hankins, C. (2013). The cost and impact of scaling up pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention: A systematic review of cost-effectiveness modelling studies. Public Library of Science Medicine, 10, e1001401. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001401
  • Goosby, E., Dybul, M., Fauci, A. A., Fu, J., Walsh, T., Needle, R., & Bouey, P. (2012). The United States president’s emergency plan for AIDS relief: A story of partnerships and smart investments to turn the tide of the global AIDS pandemic: Erratum. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 60, S51–S56. doi:10.1097/QAI.0b013e31825ca721
  • Gostin, L. O., & Hankins, C. A. (2008). Male circumcision as an HIV prevention strategy in sub-Saharan Africa: Sociolegal barriers. JAMA, 300, 2539–2541. doi:10.1001/jama.2008.752
  • Gouws, E., White, P. J., Stover, J., & Brown, T. (2006). Short term estimates of adult HIV incidence by mode of transmission: Kenya and Thailand as examples. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 82(Suppl. 3), iii51–iii55. doi:10.1136/sti.2006.020164
  • Granich, R. M., Gilks, C. F., Dye, C., De Cock, K. M., & Williams, B. G. (2009). Universal voluntary HIV testing with immediate antiretroviral therapy as a strategy for elimination of HIV transmission: A mathematical model. Lancet, 373(9657), 48–57. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61697-9
  • Gray, R., Kigozi, G., Kong, X., Ssempiija, V., Makumbi, F., Wattya, S., … Wawer, M. J. (2012). The effectiveness of male circumcision for HIV prevention and effects on risk behaviors in a post-trial follow up study in Rakai, Uganda. AIDS, 26, 609–615. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e3283504a3f
  • Gray, R. H., Kigozi, G., Serwadda, D., Makumbi, F., Watya, S., Nalugoda, F., … Wawer, M. J. (2007). Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: A randomised trial. Lancet, 369, 657–666. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60313-4
  • Gray, R. H., Wawer, M. J., & Kigozi, G. (2013). Programme science research on medical male circumcision scale-up in sub-Saharan Africa. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 89, 345–349. doi:10.1136/sextrans-2012-050595
  • Green, L. W., McAllister, R. G., Peterson, K. W., & Travis, J. W. (2008). Male circumcision is not the ‘vaccine’ we have been waiting for! Future HIV Therapy, 2, 193–199. doi:10.2217/17469600.2.3.193
  • Green, L. W., Travis, J. W., McAllister, R. G., Peterson, K. W., Vardanyan, A. N., & Craig, A. (2010). Male circumcision and HIV prevention insuffıcient evidence and neglected external validity. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 39, 479–482. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2010.07.010
  • Grohskopf, L., Shay, L. A., Shimabukuro, T. T., Sokolow, L. Z., Keitel, W. A., Bresee, J., & Cox, N. (2013). Prevention and control of seasonal influenza with vaccines: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices—United States, 2013–2014. Recommendations and reports. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), 62, 1–43. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/
  • Grund, J. M., & Hennink, M. M. (2012). A qualitative study of sexual behavior change and risk compensation following adult male circumcision in urban Swaziland. AIDS Care, 24, 245–251. doi:10.1080/09540121.2011.596516
  • Halioua, B., & Lobel, B. (2014). Actual controversies about circumcision. La Presse Médicale, 43, 1168–1173. doi:10.1016/j.lpm.2014.04.021
  • Hallett, T. B., Alsallaq, R. A., Baeten, J. M., Weiss, H., Celum, C., Gray, R., & Abu-Raddad, L. (2011). Will circumcision provide even more protection from HIV to women and men? New estimates of the population impact of circumcision interventions. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 87(2), 88–93. doi:10.1136/sti.2010.043372
  • Halperin, D. T., & Bailey, R. C. (1999). Male circumcision and HIV infection: 10 years and counting. Lancet, 354, 1813–1815. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(99)03421-2
  • Hankins, C. (2007). Male circumcision: implications for women as sexual partners and parents. Reproductive Health Matters, 15, 62–67. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17512377
  • Heidari, S., Harries, A. D., & Zachariah, R. (2011). Facing up to programmatic challenges created by the HIV/AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 14(Suppl. 1), S1. doi:10.1186/1472-6963-8-166
  • Hill, B. A. (1965). The environment and disease: Association or causation? Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 58, 295–300. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14283879
  • Hoberman, A., Greenberg, D. P., Paradise, J. L., Rockette, H. E., Lave, J. R., Keatney, D. H., … Kerr, J. D. (2003). Effectiveness of inactivated influenza vaccine in preventing acute otitis media in young children: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290, 1608–1616. doi:10.1001/jama.290.12.1608
  • Holt, M., Murphy, D. A., Caliander, D., Ellard, J., Rosengarten, M., Kippax, S. C., & de Wit, J. B. (2012). Willingness to use HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis and the likelihood of decreased condom use are both associated with unprotected anal intercourse and the perceived likelihood of becoming HIV positive among Australian gay and bisexual men. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 88, 258–263. doi:10.1136/sextrans-2011-050312
  • Hsu, J., Zinsou, C., Parkhurst, J., N'Dour, M., Foyet, L., & Mueller, D. H. (2013). Comparative costs and cost-effectiveness of behavioural interventions as part of HIV prevention strategies. Health Policy and Planning, 28(1), 20–29. doi:10.1093/heapol/czs021
  • Hunsmann, M. (2012). Limits to evidence-based health policymaking: Policy hurdles to structural HIV prevention in Tanzania. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 1477–1485. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.01.023
  • Jefferson, T., Rivetti, A., Di Pietrantonj, C., Demicheli, V., & Ferroni, E. (2012). Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children. Cochrane Database Systematic Review, 8, CD004879. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004879.pub4
  • Jones, A., Cremin, I., Abdullah, F., Idoko, J., Cherutich, P., Kilonzo, N., … Dybul, M. (2014). Transformation of HIV from pandemic to low-endemic levels: A public health approach to combination prevention. Lancet, 384, 272–279. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62230-8
  • Jones, D., Cook, R., Arheart, K., Redding, C. A., Zulu, R., Castro, J., & Weiss, S. M. (2013). Acceptability, knowledge, beliefs, and partners as determinants of Zambian men’s readiness to undergo medical male circumcision. Urology, 81, 1063. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2012.08.080
  • Jones, D., Weiss, S. M., Arheart, K., Cook, R., & Chitalu, N. (2013). Implementation of HIV prevention interventions in resource limited settings: The partner project. Journal of Community Health, 39, 151–158. doi:10.1007/s10900-013-9753-2
  • Justman, J., Goldberg, A., Reed, J., Bock, N., Njeuhmeli, E., & Goldzier Thomas, A. (2013). Adult male circumcision: Reflections on successes and challenges. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 63, S140–S143. doi:10.1097/QAI.0b013e31829875cc
  • Kacker, S., Frick, K. D., Gaydos, C. A., & Tobian, A. A. R. (2012). Costs and effectiveness of neonatal male circumcision. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166, 910–918. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2012.1440
  • Kahn, J. G., & Marseille, E. A. (2013). Capsule commentary on long and stavert, portfolios of biomedical HIV interventions in South Africa: A cost-effectiveness analysis. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 28, 1350. doi:10.1007/s11606-013-2519-9
  • Kaicher, D. C., & Swan, K. G. (2010). A cut above: Circumcision as an ancient status symbol. Urology, 76(1), 18–20. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2010.01.056
  • Kalichman, S. C., Cherry, C., Amaral, C. M., Swetzes, C., Eaton, L., Macy, R., … Kalichman, M. O. (2010). Adherence to antiretroviral therapy and HIV transmission risks: Implications for test-and-treat approaches to HIV prevention. AIDS Patient Care STDS, 24, 271–277. doi:10.1089/apc.2009.0309
  • Kalichman, S., Grebler, T., Amaral, C., McKerey, M., White, D., Kalichman, M., … Eaton, L. (2013). Assumed infectiousness, treatment adherence and sexual behaviours: Applying the Swiss Statement on infectiousness to HIV-positive alcohol drinkers. HIV Medicine, 14, 263–272. doi:10.1111/j.1468-1293.2012.01062.x
  • Karim, S. S. A., & Karim, Q. A. (2011). Antiretroviral prophylaxis: A defining moment in HIV control. Lancet, 378, e23–e25. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61136-7
  • Kelly, H., Carville, K., Grant, K., Jacoby, P., Tran, T., & Barr, I. (2009). Estimation of influenza vaccine effectiveness from routine surveillance data. Public Library of Science One, 4, e5079. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005079
  • Kennedy, C. E., Medley, A. M., Sweat, M. D., & O'Reilly, K. R. (2010). Behavioural interventions for HIV positive prevention in developing countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 88, 615–623. doi:10.2471/BLT.09.068213
  • Kenyatta, J. (1965). Facing Mount Kenya. New York, NY: Random House.
  • Kigozi, G., Watya, S., Polis, C. B., Buwembo, D., Kiggundu, V., Wawer, M. J., … Gray, R. H. (2008). The effect of male circumcision on sexual satisfaction and function, results from a randomized trial of male circumcision for human immunodeficiency virus prevention, Rakai, Uganda. BJU International, 101(1), 65–70. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18086100
  • Kim, J. Y. (2012). Data for better health—And to help end poverty. Lancet, 380, 2055. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62162-X
  • Kippax, S. (2012). Effective HIV prevention: The indispensable role of social science. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 15, 17357. doi:10.7448/IAS.15.2.17357
  • Klausner, J. D., Wamai, R. G., Bowa, K., Agot, K., Kagimba, J., & Halperin, D. (2008). Is male circumcision as good as the vaccine we’ve been waiting for? Future HIV Therapy, 2(1), 1–7. doi:10.2217/17469600.2.1.1
  • Kleinman, A. (2010). The art of medicine: Four social theories for global health. Lancet, 375, 1518–1519. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60646-0
  • Knaul, F. M., Frenk, J., & Frenk, S. (2011). Closing the cancer divide: A blueprint to expand access in low and middle income countries. Retrieved from http://ghsm.hms.harvard.edu/files/assets/Programs/NewbornHealth/files/ccd_report_111027.pdf
  • Kong, X., Kigozi, G., Nalugoda, F., Musoke, R., KAgaayi, J., Latkin, C., … Gray, R. (2012). Assessment of changes in risk behaviors during 3 years of posttrial follow-up of male circumcision trial participants uncircumcised at trial closure in Rakai, Uganda. American Journal of Epidemiology, 176, 875–885. doi:10.1093/aje/kws179
  • Krieger, J. N, Mehta, S. D., Bailey, R. C., Agot, K., Ndinya-Achola, J. O., Parker, C., & Moses, S. (2008). Adult male circumcision: Effects on sexual function and sexual satisfaction in Kisumu, Kenya. The Journal of Sexual Medicine, 5, 2610–2622. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00979.x
  • Kurth, A. E., Celum, C., Baeten, J. M., Vermund, S. H., & Wasserheit, J. N. (2011), Combination HIV prevention: Significance, challenges, and opportunities. Current HIV/AIDS Reports, 8(1), 62–72. doi:10.1007/s11904-010-0063-3
  • The Lancet. (2012). Safeguarding male circumcision. Lancet, 380, 860. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61487-1
  • Layer, E. H., Beckham, S. W., Mgeni, L., Shembilu, C., Monburi, R. B., & Kennedy, C. E. (2013). ‘After my husband’s circumcision, I know that I am safe from diseases’: Women’s attitudes and risk perceptions towards male circumcision in Iringa, Tanzania. Public Library of Science One, 8, e74391. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074391
  • L'Engle, K., Lanham, M., Loolpapit, M., & Oguma, I. (2014). Understanding partial protection and HIV risk and behavior following voluntary medical male circumcision rollout in Kenya. Health Education Research, 29(1), 122–130. doi:10.1093/her/cyt103
  • Lie, R. K., Emanuel, E. J., & Grady, C. (2006). Circumcision and HIV prevention research: An ethical analysis. Lancet, 368, 522–525. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16890839
  • Lie, R. K., & Miller, F. G. (2011). What counts as reliable evidence for public health policy: The case of circumcision for preventing HIV infection. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11(1), 34. doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdi024
  • Liu, C. M., Hungate, B. A., Tobian, A. A. R., Serwadda, D., Ravel, J., Lester, R., … Price, L. B. (2013). Male circumcision significantly reduces prevalence and load of genital anaerobic bacteria. Molecular Genetics of Bacteria, 4, e00076–13. doi:10.1128/mBio.00076-13
  • Lockman, S., & Sax, P. (2012). Treatment-for-prevention: Clinical considerations. Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, 7(2), 131–139. doi:10.1097/COH.0b013e32834fcf6b
  • Long, E. F., & Stavert, R. R. (2013). Portfolios of biomedical HIV interventions in South Africa: A cost-effectiveness analysis. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 28, 1294–1301. doi:10.1007/s11606-013-2417-1
  • Lopez, L. M., Otterness, C., Chen, M., Steiner, M., & Gallo, M. F. (2013). Behavioral interventions for improving condom use for dual protection. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 10, CD010662. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010662.pub2
  • Lorimer, K., Kidd, L., Lawrence, M., McPherson, K., Cayless, S., & Cornish, F. (2013). Systematic review of reviews of behavioural HIV prevention interventions among men who have sex with men. AIDS Care, 25(2), 133–150. doi:10.1080/09540121.2012.699672
  • Lukobo, M. D., & Bailey, R. C. (2007). Acceptability of male circumcision for prevention of HIV infection in Zambia. AIDS Care, 19, 471–477. doi:10.1080/09540120601163250
  • Madhivanan, P., Krupp, K., Chandrasekaran, V., Karat, S. C., Reingold, A. L., & Klausner, J. D. (2008). Acceptability of male circumcision among mothers with male children in Mysore, India. AIDS, 22, 983–988. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e3282ffde52
  • Marrazzo, J. M., & Cates, W. (2011). Interventions to prevent sexually transmitted infections, including HIV infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 53(Suppl. 3), S64–S78. doi:10.1093/cid/cir695
  • Maticka-Tyndale, E. (2012). Condoms in sub-Saharan Africa. Sexual Health, 9(1), 59–72. doi:10.1071/SH11033
  • Mattson, C. L., Campbell, R. T., Bailey, R. C., Agot, K., Ndinya-Achola, J. O., & Moses, S. (2008). Risk compensation is not associated with male circumcision in Kisumu, Kenya: A multi-faceted assessment of men enrolled in a randomized controlled trial. Public Library of Science One, 3, e2443. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002443
  • Mavhu, W., Buzdugan, R., Langhaug, L. F., Hatzold, K., Benedikt, C., Sherman, J., … Cowan, F. M. (2011). Prevalence and factors associated with knowledge of and willingness for male circumcision in rural Zimbabwe. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 16, 589–597. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2011.02744.x
  • McAllister, R. G., Travis, J. W., Bollinger, D., Rutiser, C., & Sundar, V. (2008). The cost to circumcise Africa. International Journal of Mens Health, 7, 307–316. doi:10.3149/jmh.0703.307
  • McCoy, S. I., Kangwende, R. A., & Padian, N. S. (2010). Behavior change interventions to prevent HIV infection among women living in low and middle income countries: A systematic review. AIDS and Behavior, 14, 469–482. doi:10.1007/s10461-009-9644-9
  • Mehta, S. D., Gray, R. H., Auvert, B., Moses, S., Godfrey, K., Dirk, T., … Bailey, R. C. (2009). Does sex in the early period after circumcision increase HIV-seroconversion risk? Pooled analysis of adult male circumcision clinical trials. AIDS, 23, 1557–1564. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e32832afe95
  • Merson, M. H., O’Malley, J., Serwadda, D., & Apisuk, C. (2008). The history and challenge of HIV prevention. Lancet, 372, 475–488. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60884-3
  • Millett, G. A., Flores, S. A., Marks, G., Reed, J. B., & Herbst, J. H. (2008). Circumcision status and risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 300, 1674–1684. doi:10.1001/jama.300.14.1674
  • Mills, E., Cooper, C., Anema, A., & Guyatt, G. (2008). Male circumcision for the prevention of heterosexually acquired HIV infection: A meta-analysis of randomized trials involving 11,050 men. HIV Medicine, 9, 332–335. doi:10.1111/j.1468-1293.2008.00596.x
  • Morris, B. J. (2007). Why circumcision is a biomedical imperative for the 21st century. BioEssays, 29, 1147–1158. doi:10.1002/bies.20654
  • Morris, B. J., Bailey, R. C., Klausner, J. D., Leibowitz, A., Wamai, R. G., Waskett, J. H., … Hankin C. A. (2012a). A critical evaluation of arguments opposing male circumcision for HIV prevention in developed countries. AIDS Care, 24, 1565–1575. doi:10.1080/09540121.2012.661836
  • Morris, B. J., Bailis, S. A., & Wiswell, T. E. (2014). Circumcision rates in the United States: Rising or falling? What effect might the new affirmative pediatric policy statement have? Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 89, 677–686. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2014.01.001
  • Morris, B. J., & Krieger, J. N. (2013). Does male circumcision affect sexual function, sensitivity, or satisfaction?—A systematic review. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 10, 2644–2657. doi:10.1111/jsm.12293
  • Morris, B. J., & Tobian, A. A. R. (2013). Legal threat to infant male circumcision. Journal of the American Medical Association Pediatrics, 167, 890–891. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.2761
  • Morris, B. J., Tobian, A. A. R., Hankins, C. A., Klausner, J. D., Banerjee, J., Bailis, S. A., … Wiswell, T. E. (2013). Veracity and rhetoric in paediatric medicine: A critique of Svoboda and Van Howe’s response to the AAP policy on infant male circumcision. Journal of Medical Ethics 1–8. Advance online publication. doi:10.1136/medethics-2013-101614
  • Morris, B. J., & Wamai, R. G. (2012). Biological basis for the protective effect conferred by male circumcision against HIV infection. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 23, 153–159. doi:10.1258/ijsa.2011.011228
  • Morris, B. J., Waskett, J. H., Banerjee, J., Wamai, R. G., Tobain, A. A. R., Gray, R. H., … Mindel, A. (2012b). A ‘snip’ in time: What is the best age to circumcise? BMC Pediatrics, 12(1), 20. doi:10.1186/1471-2431-12-20
  • Morris, B. J., Waskett, J. H., Gray, R. H., Halperin, D. T., Wamai, R. G., Auvert, B., … Klausner, J. D. (2011). Exposé of misleading claims that male circumcision will increase HIV infections. Journal of Public Health Africa, 2(2), e28. doi:10.4081/jphia.2011.e28
  • Morris, B. J., Wodak, A. D., Mindel, A., Schrieber, L., Duggan, K., Dilly, A., … Leeder, S. R. (2012c). Circumcision Foundation of Australia. Infant male circumcision: An evidence-based policy statement. Open Journal of Preventive Medicine, 2(01), 79–92. doi:10.4236/ojpm.2012.21012
  • Moses, S., Bradley, J. E., Nagelkerke, N. J. D., Ronald, A. R., Ndinya-Achola, J. O., & Plummer, F. A. (1990). Geographical patterns of male circumcision practices in Africa: Association with HIV seroprevalence. International Journal of Epidemiology, 19, 693–697. doi:10.1093/ije/19.3.693
  • Moses, S., Nagelkerke, N. J. D., & Blanchard, J. F. (1999). Commentary: Analysis of the scientific literature on male circumcision and risk for HIV infection. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 10, 626–628. doi:10.1258/0956462991914681
  • Moses, S., Plummer, F. A., Bradley, J. E., Ndinya-Achola, J. O., Nagelkerke, N. J., & Ronald, A. R. (1994). The association between lack of male circumcision and risk for HIV infection: A review of the epidemiological data. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 21, 201–210. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7974070
  • Mugwanya, K. K., Whalen, C., Celum, C., Nakku-Joloba, E., Katabira, E., & Baeten, J. M. (2011). Circumcision of male children for reduction of future risk for HIV: Acceptability among HIV serodiscordant couples in Kampala, Uganda. Public Library of Science One, 6, e22254. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022254
  • Muula, A. S., Prozesky, H. W., Mataya, R. H., & Ikechebelu, J. I. (2007). Prevalence of complications of male circumcision in Anglophone Africa: A systematic review. BMC Urolology, 7(1), 4. doi:10.1186/1471-2490-7-4
  • Mwandi, Z., Murphy, A., Reed, J., Chesang, K., Njeuhmeli, E., Kawango, A., … Bock, N. (2011). Voluntary medical male circumcision: Translating research into the rapid expansion of services in Kenya, 2008–2011. Public Library of Science Medicine, 8, e1001130. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001130
  • Mwanga, J. R., Wambura, M., Mosha, J. F., Mshana, G., Mosha, F., & Changalucha, J. (2011). Policy environment and male circumcision for HIV prevention: Findings from a situation analysis study in Tanzania. BMC Public Health, 11, 506. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-373
  • Nagelkerke, N. J., Moses, S., de Vlas, S. J., & Bailey, R. C. (2007). Modelling the public health impact of male circumcision for HIV prevention in high prevalence areas in Africa. BMC Infectious Diseases, 7(1), 16. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-7-16
  • National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) [Tanzania] and ICF Macro. (2011). Tanzania demographic and health survey 2010. Dar es Salaam: Author. Retrieved from http://www.nbs.go.tz/takwimu/references/2010TDHS.pdf
  • Njeuhmeli, E., Forsythe, S., Reed, J., Opuni, M., Bollinger, L., Heard, N., … Hankins, C. (2011). Voluntary medical male circumcision: Modeling the impact and cost of expanding male circumcision for HIV prevention in eastern and southern Africa. Public Library of Science Medicine, 8, e1001132. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001132
  • Nsubuga, R. N., White, R. G., Mayanja, B. N., & Shafer, L. A. (2014). Estimation of the HIV basic reproduction number in rural south west Uganda: 1991–2008. Public Library of Science Medicine, 9, e83778. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0083778
  • O'Farrell, N., & Egger, M. (2000). Circumcision in men and the prevention of HIV infection: A ‘meta-analysis’ revisited. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 11(3), 137–142. doi:10.1258/0956462001915480
  • O’Farrell, N., Morison, L., Moodley, P., Pillay, K., Vanmali, T., Quigley, M., … Sturm, A. W. (2006). Association between HIV and subpreputial penile wetness in uncircumcised men in South Africa. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 43, 6977. doi:10.1097/01.qai.0000225014.61192.98
  • Okeke, L. I., Asinobi, A. A., & Ikuerowo, O. S. (2006). Epidemiology of complications of male circumcision in Ibadan, Nigeria. BMC Urology, 6(1), 21. doi:10.1186/1471-2490-6-21
  • Padian, N. S., Buvé, A., Balkus, J., Serwadda, D., & Cates, Jr, W. (2008). Biomedical interventions to prevent HIV infection: Evidence, challenges, and way forward. Lancet, 372, 585–599. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60885-5
  • Padian, N. S., McCoy, S. I., Balkus, J. E., & Wasserheit, J. N. (2010). Weighing the gold in the gold standard: Challenges in HIV prevention research. AIDS, 24, 621–635. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e328337798a
  • Patterson, B. K., Landay, A., Siegel, J. N., Flener, Z., Pessis, D., Chaviano, A., … Bailey, R. C. (2002). Susceptibility to human immunodeficiency virus-1 infection of human foreskin and cervical tissue grow in explant culture. American Journal of Pathology, 161, 867–873. doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)64247-2
  • PEPFAR. (2013). The PEPFAR guide to monitoring & reporting voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) indicators. Retrieved from http://www.malecircumcision.org/resources/documents/PEPFAR_guide_to_monitoring_and_reporting_VMMC_indicators_main.pdf
  • Piot, P., & Quinn, T. C. (2013). Response to the AIDS pandemic—A global health model. New England Journal of Medicine, 368, 2210–2218. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1201533
  • Plotkin, M., Castor, D., Mziray, H., Kuver, J., Mpuya, E., Luvanda, P. J., … Mahler, H. (2013). “Man, what took you so long?” Social and individual factors affecting adult attendance at voluntary medical male circumcision services in Tanzania. Global Health: Science and Practice, 1(1), 108–116. doi:10.9745/GHSP-D-12-00037
  • Potts, M. (2000). Male circumcision and HIV infection. Lancet, 355, 926–927. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)74127-1
  • Potts, M., Halperin, D. T., Kirby, D., Swidler, A., Marseille, E., Klausner, J. D., … Walsh, J. (2008). Reassessing HIV prevention. Science, 320, 749–750. doi:10.1126/science.1153843
  • Quinn, T. C., Wawer, M. J., Sewankambo, N., Serwadda, D., Li, C., Wabwire-Mangen, F., … Gray, R. H. (2000). Viral load and heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. New England Journal of Medicine, 342, 921–929. doi:10.1056/NEJM200003303421303
  • Rennie, S., Muula, A. S., & Westreich, D. (2007). MC and HIV prevention—Ethical, medical and public health tradeoffs in low-income countries. Journal of Medical Ethics, 33, 357–361. doi:10.1136/jme.2006.019901
  • Rosario, I. J., Kasabwala, K., & Sadeghi-Nejad, H. (2013). Circumcision as a strategy to minimize HIV transmission. Current Urology Reports, 14, 285–290. doi:10.1007/s11934-013-0343-8
  • Rosen, L., Manor, O., Engelhard, D., & Zucker, D. (2006). In defense of the randomized controlled trial for health promotion research. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 1181–1186. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.061713
  • Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Swendeman, D., & Chovnick, G. (2009). The past, present, and future of HIV prevention: Integrating behavioral, biomedical, and structural intervention strategies for the next generation of HIV prevention. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5(1), 143–167. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.032408.153530
  • Royal Australasian College of Physicians, Paediatrics & Child Health Division. (2010). Circumcision of infant males. Retrieved from http://www.racp.edu.au/page/paed-policy
  • The Royal College of Paediatricians and Child Health. (u.d.). Management of foreskinStatement from the British Association of Paediatric Urologists on behalf of the British Association of Paediatric Surgeons and The Association of Paediatric Anaesthetists. Retrieved from http://www.bapu.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/circumcision2007.pdf
  • Koninklijke Nederlandsche Maatschappij tot bevordering der Geneeskunst (KNMG) [Royal Dutch Medical Association (KNMG)]. (2010). Non-therapeutic circumcision of male minors. Retrieved from http://knmg.artsennet.nl/Publicaties/KNMGpublicatie/77942/Nontherapeutic-circumcision-of-male-minors-2010.htm
  • Russell, J., Greenhalgh, T., Byrne, E., & McDonnell, J. (2008). Recognizing rhetoric in health care policy analysis. Journal of Health Services Research & Policy, 13(1), 40–46. doi:10.1258/jhsrp.2007.006029
  • Sackett, D. L., Rosenberg, W. M. C., Gray, J. A. M., Haynes, R. B., & Richardson, W. S. (1996). Evidence based medicine: What it is and what it isn’t. British Medical Journal, 312(7023), 71–72. doi:10.1136/bmj.312.7023.71
  • Sansom, S. L., Prabhu, V. S., Hutchinson, A. B., An, Q., Hall, H. I., Shrestha, R. K., … Taylor, A. W. (2010). Cost-effectiveness of newborn circumcision in reducing lifetime HIV risk among U.S. males. Public Library of Science One, 5, e8723. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008723
  • Sawires, S. R., Dworkin, S. L., Fiamma, A., Peacock, D., Szekeres, G., & Coates, T. J. (2007). Male circumcision and HIV/AIDS: Challenges and opportunities. Lancet, 369, 708–713. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60323-7
  • Schmid, G. P., Buvé, A., Mugyenyi, P., Garnett, G. P., Hayes, R. J., Williams, B. G., … Boerma, J. T. (2004). Transmission of HIV-1 infection in sub-Saharan Africa and effect of elimination of unsafe injections. Lancet, 363, 482–488. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15497-4
  • Schneider, J. A., Dandona, R., Pasupneti, S., Lakshmi, V., Liao, C., Yeldandi, V., & Mayer, K. H. (2010). Initial commitment to pre-exposure prophylaxis and circumcision for HIV prevention amongst Indian truck drivers. Public Library of Science One, 5, e11922.
  • Schneider, J. A., Michaels, S., Gandham, S. R., McFadden, R., Liao, C., Yeldandi, V. V., … Oruganti, G. (2012b). A protective effect of circumcision among receptive male sex partners of Indian men who have sex with men. AIDS Behavior, 16, 350–359. doi:10.1007/s10461-011-9982-2
  • Schneider, J., Vadivelu, S., Liao, C., Kandukuri, S., Trikamji, B., Chang, E., … Lakshmi, V. (2012a). Increased likelihood of bacterial pathogens in the coronal sulcus and urethra of uncircumcised men in a diverse group of HIV infected and uninfected patients in India. Journal of Global Infectious Diseases, 4(1), 6–9. doi:10.4103/0974-777X.93750
  • Schoen, E. J. (2007). Circumcision as a lifetime vaccination with many benefits. Journal of Men's Health and Gender, 4, 306–311. doi:10.1016/j.jmhg.2007.05.005
  • Scott-Sheldon, L. A. J., Huedo-Medina, T. B., Warren, M. R., Johnson, B. T., & Carey, M. P. (2011). Efficacy of behavioral interventions to increase condom use and reduce sexually transmitted infections: A meta-analysis, 1991 to 2010. Journal of Immune Deficiency Sydromes, 58, 489–498. doi:10.1097/QAI.0b013e31823554d7
  • Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Shattock, R. J., Warren, M., McCormack, S., & Hankins, C. A. (2011). Turning the tide against HIV. Science, 333(6038), 42–43. doi:10.1126/science.1206399
  • Shisana, O., Rehle, T., Simbayi, L. C., Zuma, K., Jooste, S., Zungu, N., … Onoya, D. (2014). South African national HIV prevalence, incidence and behaviour survey, 2012. Cape Town: HSRC Press.
  • Siegfried, N., Muller, M., Deeks, J. J., & Volmink, J. (2003). Male circumcision for prevention of heterosexual acquisition of HIV in men. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 3, CD003362. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003362.pub2
  • Siegfried, N., Muller, M., Deeks, J., Volmink, J., Egger, M., Low, N., … Williamson, P. (2005). HIV and male circumcision—A systematic review with assessment of the quality of studies. Lancet Infectious Diseases, 5, 165–173. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(05)01309-5
  • Siegfried, N., Muller, M., Volmink, J., Deeks, J. J., Egger, M., Low, N., … Williamson, P. (2009). Male circumcision for prevention of heterosexual acquisition of HIV in men. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, CD003362. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003362.pub2
  • Smith, D. K., Taylor, A., Kilmarx, P. H., Sullivan, P., Warner, L., Kamb, M., … Mastro, T. D. (2010). Male circumcision in the United States for the prevention of HIV infection and other adverse health outcomes: Report from a CDC consultation. Public Health Reports, 125, 72–82. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20408390
  • Stephenson, S. (1998). Why do we need randomised controlled trials to assess behavioural interventions? British Medical Journal, 316, 611–624. doi:10.1136/bmj.316.7131.611
  • Stone, G. S. (2014). Kenya’s voluntary male medical circumcision program: Translatable lessons for both domestic and international programs. Healthcare, 2(1), 74–75. doi:10.1016/j.hjdsi.2013.12.012
  • Templeton, D. J. (2010). Male circumcision to reduce sexual transmission of HIV. Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS, 5, 344–349. doi:10.1097/COH.0b013e32833a46d3
  • Templeton, D. J, Jin, F., Mao, L., Prestage, G. P., Donovan, B., Imrie, J., … Grulich, A. E. (2009). Circumcision and risk of HIV infection in Australian homosexual men. AIDS, 23, 2347–2351. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e32833202b8
  • Templeton, D. J., Millett, G. A., & Grulich, A. E. (2010). Male circumcision to reduce the risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases, 23(1), 45–52. doi:10.1097/QCO.0b013e328334e54d
  • Tian, Y., Liu, W., Wang, J.-Z., Wazir, R., Yue, X., & Wang, K.-J. (2013). Effects of circumcision on male sexual functions: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Asian Journal of Andrology, 15, 662–666. doi:10.1038/aja.2013.47
  • Timberg, C., & Halperin, D. T. (2012). Tinderbox: How the West sparked the AIDS epidemic and how the world can finally overcome it. New York, NY: Penguin Press HC.
  • Timmermans, S. (2013). Seven warrants for qualitative health sociology. Social Science & Medicine, 77, 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.10.004
  • Tobian, A. A., Gray, R. H., & Quinn, T. C. (2010). Male circumcision for the prevention of acquisition and transmission of sexually transmitted infections: The case for neonatal circumcision. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 164, 78–84. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.232
  • Tumwesigye, B. T., Nakanjako, D., Wanyenze, R., Akol, Z., & Sewankambo, N. (2013). Policy development, implementation and evaluation by the AIDS control program in Uganda: A review of the processes. Health Research Policy and Systems, 11(1), 7. doi:10.1186/1478-4505-10-20
  • UNAIDS. (2000). Evaluation of the 100% condom program in Thailand. Retrieved from http://data.unaids.org/publications/IRC-pub01/jc275-100pcondom_en.pdf.
  • UNAIDS. (2007). Male circumcision: Context, criteria and culture (Part 1). Retrieved from http://www.unaids.org/en/Resources/PressCentre/Featurestories/2007/February/20070226MCpt1/
  • UNAIDS. (2008). Safe, voluntary, informed male circumcision and comprehensive HIV prevention programming guidance for decision-makers on human rights, ethical and legal considerations. Retrieved from http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2008/JC1552_Circumcision_en.pdf
  • UNAIDS. (2010). Combination HIV prevention: Tailoring and coordinating biomedical, behavioural and structural strategies to reduce new HIV infections. Retrieved from http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2011/20111110_JC2007_Combination_Prevention_paper_en.pdf
  • UNAIDS. (2013). UNAIDS report on the global AIDS epidemic 2013. Retrieved from http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/epidemiology/2013/gr2013/UNAIDS_Global_Report_2013_en.pdf
  • UNAIDS & PEPFAR. (2012). Voluntary medical male circumcision for HIV prevention: The cost, impact, and challenges of accelerated scale-up in Southern and Eastern Africa. Retrieved from http://www.ploscollections.org/article/browseIssue.action?issue=info:doi/10.1371/issue.pcol.v01.i11
  • UNAIDS & WHO. (2011). Joint strategic action framework to accelerate the scale-up of voluntary medical male circumcision for HIV prevention in Eastern and Southern Africa 2012-2016. Retrieved from http://www.pepfar.gov/documents/organization/178294.pdf
  • UNAIDS & WHO. (2012). Ethical considerations in biomedical HIV prevention trials [Additional guidance point added in 2012]. Retrieved from http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2012/jc1399_ethical_considerations_en.pdf
  • UNAIDS, WHO, & SACEMA Expert Group on Modeling the Impact and Cost of Male Circumcision for HIV Prevention. (2009). Male circumcision for HIV prevention in high HIV prevalence settings: What can mathematical modeling contribute to informed decision making? Retrieved from http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000109
  • Underhill, K. (2013). Study designs for identifying risk compensation behavior among users of biomedical HIV prevention technologies: Balancing methodological rigor and research ethics. Social Science & Medicine, 94, 115–123. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.03.020
  • USAID. (2009). USAID health policy initiative: The potential cost and impact of expanding male circumcision in 14 African countries. Retrieved from http://www.malecircumcision.org/programs/documents/14_country_summary11309.pdf
  • Van Howe, R. S. (1999). Circumcision and HIV infection: Review of the literature and meta-analysis. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 10(1), 8–16. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10215123
  • Van Howe, R. S., & Storms, M. R. (2011). How the circumcision solution in Africa will increase HIV infections. Journal of Public Health in Africa, 2(1), 11–15. doi:10.4081/jphia.2011.e4
  • Verguet, S. (2013). Efficient and equitable HIV prevention: A case study of male circumcision in South Africa. Cost Effectiveness and Resource Allocation, 11(1), 1. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3156.2003.01112.x
  • Wamai, R. G. (2012). Letter: Criticism of VMMC is water under the bridge and misses the mark. Re: ‘Factors associated with uptake of infant male circumcision for HIV prevention in Western Kenya’ Young, et al. Pediatrics, 130, 175–182. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2290
  • Wamai, R. G., & Morris, B. J. (2011). How to contain generalized HIV epidemics’ article misconstrues the evidence. International Journal of STD & AIDS, 22, 415–416. doi:10.1258/ijsa.2010.010460
  • Wamai, R. G., Morris, B. J., Bailis, S. A., Sokal, D., Klausner, J. D., Appleton, R., … Banerjee, J. (2011). Male circumcision for HIV prevention: Current evidence and implementation in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 14(1), 49. doi:10.1097/00126334-200404150-00001
  • Wamai, R. G., Morris, B. J., Waskett, J. H., Green, E. C., Banerjee, J., Bailey, R. C., … Sokal, D. C. (2012). Criticisms of African trials fail to withstand scrutiny: Male circumcision does prevent HIV infection. Journal of Law and Medicine, 20, 93–123. Retrieved from http://www.ghdonline.org/uploads/JLM2012_Male_circ_does_prevent_HIV_infection.pdf
  • Wamai, R. G., Weiss, H. A., Hankins, C., Agot, K., Karmin, Q. A., Shisana, O., … Zungu, N. (2008). Male circumcision is an efficacious, lasting and cost-effective strategy for combating HIV in high-prevalence AIDS epidemics: Time to move beyond debating the science. Future HIV Therapy, 2, 399–405. doi:10.2217/17469600.2.5.399
  • Warner, L. (2010, February). Barriers to barriers. Paper presented at the meeting of The 17th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI), San Francisco. Retrieved from http://app2.capitalreach.com/esp1204/servlet/tc?c=10164&cn=retro&e=12350&m=1&s=20431&&espmt=2&mp3file=12350&m4bfile=12350
  • Waters, E., Li, M., Mugisa, B., Bowa, K., Linyama, D., Stringer, E., & Stringer, J. (2012). Acceptability and uptake of neonatal male circumcision in Lusaka, Zambia. AIDS Behavior, 17, 2114–2122. doi:10.1007/s10461-012-0297-8
  • Wawer, M. J., Makumbi, F., Kigozi, G., Serwadda, D., Watya, S., Nalugoda, F., … Gray, R. H. (2009). Circumcision in HIV-infected men and its effect on HIV transmission to female partners in Rakai, Uganda: A randomised controlled trial. Lancet, 374, 229–237. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60998-3
  • Weintraub, R. L., Talbot, J. R., Wachter, K. J., Cole, C. B., May, M. A., & Muraguri, N. (2014). When scaling prevention means scaling demand: Voluntary medical male circumcision in Nyanza Province, Kenya. Healthcare, 2(1), 69–73. doi:10.1016/j.hjdsi.2013.12.002
  • Weiss, H. A., Dickson, K. E., Agot, K., & Hankins, C. A. (2010). Male circumcision for HIV prevention: Current research and programmatic issues. AIDS, 24(Suppl. 4), S61–S69. doi:10.1097/01.aids.0000390708.66136.f4
  • Weiss, H. A., Hankins, C. A., & Dickson, K. (2009). Male circumcision and risk of HIV infection in women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infectious Diseases, 9, 669–677. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(09)70235-X
  • Weiss, H. A., Quigley, M. A., & Hayes, R. J. (2000). Male circumcision and risk of HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS, 14, 2361–2370. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11089625
  • Weiss, H. A., Wasserheit, J. N., Barnabas, R. V., Hayes, R. J., & Abu-Raddad, L. J. (2008). Persisting with prevention: The importance of adherence for HIV prevention. Emerging Themes in Epidemiology, 5(1), 8. doi:10.1186/1742-7622-5-8
  • Weller, S., & Davis, K. (2001). Condom effectiveness in reducing heterosexual HIV transmission. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1, CD003255. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003255
  • Westercamp, M., Agot, K. E., Ndinya-Achola, J., & Bailey, R. C. (2012). Circumcision preference among women and uncircumcised men prior to scale-up of male circumcision for HIV prevention in Kisumu, Kenya. AIDS Care, 24, 157–166. doi:10.1080/09540121.2011.597944
  • Westercamp, N., & Bailey, R. C. (2007). Acceptability of male circumcision for prevention of HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa: A review. AIDS Behavior, 11, 341–355. doi:10.1007/s10461-006-9169-4
  • Williams, B. G., Lloyd-Smith, J. O., Gouws, E., Hankins, C., Getz, W. M., Hargrove, J., … Auvert, B. (2006). The potential impact of male circumcision on HIV in sub-Saharan Africa. Public Library of Science Medicine, 3, e262. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030262
  • Wilson, N. L., Xiong, W., & Mattson, C. (2012). Is sex like driving? Risk compensation associated with randomized male circumcision in Kisumu, Kenya. Retrieved from http://web.williams.edu/Economics/wp/Wilson_Circumcision.pdf
  • Wiysonge, C. S., Kongnyuy, E. J., Shey, M., Muula, A. S., Navti, O. B., Aki, E. A., & Lo, Y. (2011). Male circumcision for prevention of homosexual acquisition of HIV in men. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 6, CD007496. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007496.pub2
  • WHO. (2009). Human papillomavirus vaccines. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19360985
  • WHO. (2012). Framework for clinical evaluation of devices for male circumcision. Retrieved from http://www.malecircumcision.org/programs/documents/WHO_MC_framework_clinical_evaluation_device_2012.pdf
  • WHO. (2013). Progress in scaling up voluntary medical male circumcision for HIV prevention in East and Southern Africa, JanuaryDecember 2012. Brazzaville: WHO Regional Office for Africa.
  • WHO. (2014). WHO Progress Brief – Voluntary medical male circumcision for HIV prevention in priority countries of East and Southern Africa. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/hiv/topics/malecircumcision/male-circumcision-info-2014/en/
  • WHO & UNAIDS. (2007a). Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability. Retrieved from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241596169_eng.pdf
  • WHO & UNAIDS. (2007b). New data on male circumcision and HIV prevention: Policy and program implications. Retrieved from http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2007/mc_recommendations_en.pdf
  • WHO & UNAIDS. (2008). Operational guidance for scaling up male circumcision services for HIV prevention. Retrieved from http://www.malecircumcision.org/programs/documents/MC_OpGuideFINAL_web.pdf
  • WHO & UNAIDS. (2011). Progress in scale-up of male circumcision for HIV prevention in Eastern and Southern Africa: Focus on service delivery. Retrieved from http://www.malecircumcision.org/resources/documents/MC_country_update_2011.pdf
  • WHO, UNAIDS, & UNICEF. (2011). Progress report 2011: Global HIV/AIDS response. Epidemic update and health sector—Progress towards Universal Access. Retrieved from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241502986_eng.pdf
  • Xinhua News Agency. Norwegian parliament accepts ritual circumcision of boys. June 16, 2014. Retrieved from http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/xinhua-news-agency/140616/norwegian-parliament-accepts-ritual-circumcision-boys
  • Yang, X., Abdullah, A. S., Wei, B., Jiang, J., Deng, W., Qin, B., … Liang, H. (2012). Factors influencing Chinese male’s willingness to undergo circumcision: A cross-sectional study in western China. Public Library of Science One, 7, e30198. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0030198
  • Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency (ZIMSTAT) and ICF International. (2012). Zimbabwe Demographic and Health Survey 2010-11. Calverton, MD: Author. Retrieved from http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR254/FR254.pdf

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.