Stigma, discrimination and HIV outcomes among people living with HIV in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: The intersection of multiple social inequalities

References

• Abadia-Barrero, C. E., & Castro, A. (2006). Experiences of stigma and access to HAART in children and adolescents living with HIV/AIDS in Brazil. Social Science & Medicine, 62(5), 1219–1228. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.07.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• AIDS no Brasil. (2012, August). AIDS no Brasil Hoje: que nos tira o sono? [AIDS in Brazil Today: what keeps us awake?]. Retrieved July 3, 2013, from http://oquenostiraosono.tumblr.com/home
   Google Scholar
• Amuri, M., Mitchell, S., Cockcroft, A., & Andersson, N. (2011). Socio-economic status and HIV/AIDS stigma in Tanzania. AIDS Care, 23(3), 378–382. doi:10.1080/09540121.2010.507739
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barreira D. Números e Tendências Atuais da Epidemia do HIV e AIDS Brasilia [Numbers and Current Trends of HIV and AIDS] (2004). Brazília, Brazil: Ministério da Saúde. Retrieved July 3, 2013, from http://bvsms.saude.gov.br/bvs/palestras/expoepi/palestra.html
   Google Scholar
• Bastos, F. I., Caceres, C., Galvão, J., Veras, M. A., & Castilho, E. A. (2008). AIDS in Latin America: Assessing the current status of the epidemic and the ongoing response. International Journal of Epidemiology, 37(4), 729–737. doi:10.1093/ije/dyn127
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bastos, F. I., Kerrigan, D., Malta, M., Carneiro-da-Cunha, C., & Strathdee, S. A. (2001). Treatment for HIV/AIDS in Brazil: Strengths, challenges, and opportunities for operations research. AIDScience, 1(15). Retrieved from http://aidscience.org/Articles/aidscience012.asp
   Google Scholar
• Berger, B. E., Ferrans, C. E., & Lashley, F. R. (2001). Measuring stigma in people with HIV: Psychometric assessment of the HIV stigma scale. Research in Nursing & Health, 24(6), 518–529. doi:10.1002/nur.10011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berkman, A., Garcia, J., Munoz-Laboy, M., Paiva, V., & Parker, R. (2005). A critical analysis of the Brazilian response to HIV/AIDS: Lessons learned for controlling and mitigating the epidemic in developing countries. American Journal of Public Health, 95(7), 1162–1172. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.054593
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brazilian Ministry of Health (BMoH). (2004). Boletim Epidemiológico AIDS [AIDS Epidemiological Bulletin] Ano XVIII. 01–01a-26a semanas epidemiológicas. Brasília: Ministério da Saúde.
   Google Scholar
• Brazilian Ministry of Health (BMoH). (2012) Boletim Epidemiológico AIDS [AIDS Epidemiological Bulletin] Ano IX. 01-01a-26a semanas epidemiológicas. Brasília: Ministério da Saúde.
   Google Scholar
• Brazilian Ministry of Health (BMoH). (2014). The Brazilian National Department of STD, AIDS and viral hepatitis. AIDS in Brazil. Retrieved November 26, 2014, from http://www.aids.gov.br/pagina/aids-no-brasil
   Google Scholar
• Brown, L., Macintyre, K., & Trujillo, L. (2003, February). Interventions to reduce HIV/AIDS stigma: What have we learned? AIDS Education and Prevention, 15(1), 49–69. doi:10.1521/aeap.15.1.49.23844
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Bruyn, T. (2002). HIV-related stigma and discrimination – the epidemic continues. Canadian HIV/AIDS Policy and Law Review, 7(1), 8–14. PMid:14765477.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Castro, A., & Farmer, P. (2005). Understanding and addressing AIDS-related stigma: From anthropological theory to clinical practice in Haiti. American Journal of Public Health, 95(1), 53–59. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2003.028563
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chesney, M. A., Ickovics, J. R., Chambers, D. B., Gifford, A. L., Neidig, J., Zwickl, B., … Patient care committee & Adherence. (2000). Self-reported adherence to antiretroviral medications among participants in HIV clinical trials: The AACTG adherence instruments. AIDS Care, 12(3), 255–266. doi:10.1080/09540120050042891
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Earnshaw, V. A., Smith, L. R., Chaudoir, S. R., Amico, K. R., & Copenhaver, M. M. (2013, June). HIV stigma mechanisms and well-being among PLWH: A test of the HIV stigma framework. AIDS and Behavior, 17(5), 1785–1795. doi:10.1007/s10461-013-0437-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford, K., Wirawan, D. N., Sumantera, G. M., Sawitri, A. A. S., & Stahre, M. (2004). Voluntary HIV testing, disclosure, and stigma among injection drug users in Bali, Indonesia. AIDS Education and Prevention, 16(6), 487–498. doi:10.1521/aeap.16.6.487.53789
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frayssinet, F. (2013, July 12). ‘Happy Prostitutes’ AIDS campaign sparks debate. Inter Press Service News Agency. Retrieved August 22, 2013, from http://www.ipsnews.net/2013/06/happy-prostitutes-aids-campaign-sparks-debate/
   Google Scholar
• Galvão, J. (2005). Brazil and access to HIV/AIDS drugs: A question of human rights and public health. American Journal of Public Health, 95(7), 1110–1116. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.044313
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia, S., & Koyama, M. A. (2008). Grupo de Estudos em População, Sexualidade e AIDS. Stigma, discrimination and HIV/AIDS in the Brazilian context, 1998 and 2005. Revista de saude publica, 42(Suppl 1), 72–83. doi:10.1590/S0034-89102008000800010
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Garrido, P. B., Paiva, V., do Nascimento, V. L., Sousa, J. B., & Santos, N. J. (2007). AIDS, stigma and unemployment: Implications for health services. Revista de saude publica, 41(Suppl 2), 72–79. doi:10.1590/S0034-89102007000900012
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• Herek, G. (1999, April). AIDS and stigma. American Behavioral Scientist, 42(7), 1106–1116. doi:10.1177/0002764299042007004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz, I. T., Ryu, A. E., Onuegbu, A. G., Psaros, C., Weiser, S. D., Bangsberg, D. R., & Tsai, A. C. (2013, November 13). Impact of HIV-related stigma on treatment adherence: Systematic review and meta-synthesis. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16(3 Suppl 2), 18640. doi:10.7448/IAS.16.3.18640
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerr, L. R. F. S., Mota, R. S., Kendall, C., Pinho, A. d. A., Mello, M. B., Guimarães, M. D. C., …. Rutherford, G. (2013). HIV among MSM in a large middle-income country. AIDS, 27(3), 427–435. doi:10.1097/QAD.0b013e32835ad504
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kerrigan, D., Kennedy, C., Morgan-Thomas, R., Reza-Paul, S., Mwangi, P., Thi Win, K., … Butler, J. (2015, January 10). A community empowerment approach to the HIV response among sex workers: Effectiveness, challenges, and considerations for implementation and scale-up. Lancet, 385(9963), 172–185. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60973-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, R. S., Kochman, A., & Sikkema, K. J. (2002). Internalized stigma among people living with HIV/AIDS. AIDS and Behavior, 6(4), 309–319. doi:10.1023/A:1021144511957
   Google Scholar
• Mahajan, A. P., Sayles, J. N., Patel, V. A., Remien, R. H., Sawires, S. R., Ortiz, D. J., … Coates, T. J. (2008). Stigma in the HIV/AIDS epidemic: A review of the literature and recommendations for the way forward. AIDS, 22(Suppl 2), S67–S79. doi:10.1097/01.aids.0000327438.13291.62
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malta, M., Bastos, F. I., Strathdee, S. A., Cunnigham, S. D., Pilotto, J. H., & Kerrigan, D. (2007). Knowledge, perceived stigma, and care-seeking experiences for sexually transmitted infections: A qualitative study from the perspective of public clinic attendees in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. BMC Public Health, 7(18). doi:10.1186/1471-2458-7-18
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malta, M., & Beyrer, C. (2013). The HIV epidemic and human rights violations in Brazil. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16, 18817. doi:10.7448/IAS.16.1.18817
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malta, M., Magnanini, M. M., Mello, M. B., Pascom, A. R., Linhares, Y., & Bastos, F. I. (2010, June 7). HIV prevalence among female sex workers, drug users and men who have sex with men in Brazil: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health,10, 317. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-317
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monteiro, S., Villela, W. V., & Knauth, D. (2012). Discrimination, stigma, and AIDS: A review of academic literature produced in Brazil (2005–2010). Cadernos de Saude Publica, 28(1), 170–176. doi:10.1590/S0102-311X2012000100018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monteiro, S. S., Villela, W. V., & Soares, P. S. (2013). The interaction between axes of inequality in studies on discrimination, stigma and HIV/AIDS: Contributions to the recent international literature. Global Public Health, 8(5), 519–533. doi:10.1080/17441692.2013.779738
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nachega, J. B., Stein, D. M., Lehman, D. A., Hlatshwayo, D., Mothopeng, R., Chaisson, R. E., & Karstaedt, A. S. (2004). Adherence to antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected adults in Soweto, South Africa. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 20(10), 1053–1056. doi:10.1089/aid.2004.20.1053
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nemoto, T., Operario, D., Soma, T., Bao, D., Vajrabukka, A., & Crisostomo, V. (2003). HIV risk and prevention among Asian/Pacific Islander men who have sex with men: Listen to our stories. AIDS Education and Prevention, 15(1 supp l), 7–20. doi:10.1521/aeap.15.1.5.7.23616
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Network of Sex Work Projects (NSWP). (2013). Statement from the Brazilian network of prostitutes: Federal government censorship, intervention, and alteration of the AIDS prevention campaign. Retrieved November 26, 2014, from http://www.nswp.org/fr/news-story/statement-the-brazilian-network-prostitutes
   Google Scholar
• Nunn, A. S., da Fonseca, E. M., Bastos, F. I., & Gruskin, S. (2009). AIDS treatment in Brazil: Impacts and challenges. Health Affairs, 28(4), 1103–1113. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.28.4.1103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Padilla, M., Castellanos, D., Guilamo-Ramos, V., Reyes, A. M., Sánchez Marte, L. E., & Soriano, M. A. (2008). Stigma, social inequality, and HIV risk disclosure among Dominican male sex workers. Social Science & Medicine, 67(3), 380–388. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paiva, V., Ventura Filipe, E., Santos, N., Novaes Lima, T., & Segurado, A. (2003). The right to love: The desire for parenthood among men living with HIV. Reproductive Health Matters, 11(22), 91–100. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(03)02293-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker, R. (2002, March). The global HIV/AIDS pandemic, structural inequalities, and the politics of international health. American Journal of Public Health, 92(3), 343–346. doi:10.2105/AJPH.92.3.343
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker, R., & Aggleton, P. (2003). HIV and AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: A conceptual framework and implications for action. Social Science & Medicine, 57(1), 13–24. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00304-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker, R., & Camargo, Jr K. R. (2000). Pobreza e HIV/AIDS: aspectos antropológicos e sociológicos [Poverty and HIV/AIDS: Anthropological and sociological aspects]. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 16, S89–S102. doi:10.1590/S0102-311X2000000700008
   Google Scholar
• Pearson, C. R., Micek, M. A., Pfeiffer, J., Montoya, P., Matediane, E., Jonasse, T.,  … Gloyd, S. S. (2009). One year after ART initiation: Psychosocial factors associated with stigma among HIV-positive Mozambicans. AIDS and Behavior, 13(6), 1189–96. doi:10.1007/s10461-009-9596-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reidpath, D. D., & Chan, K. Y. (2005). A method for the quantitative analysis of the layering of HIV-related stigma. AIDS Care, 17(4), 425–432. doi:10.1080/09540120412331319769
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Remien, R. H., Bastos, F. I., Jnr, V. T., Raxach, J. C., Pinto, R. M., Parker, R. G.,  … Hacker, M. A. (2007). Adherence to antiretroviral therapy in a context of universal access, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. AIDS Care, 19(6), 740–748. doi:10.1080/09540120600842516
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers, W. (1993). Regression standard errors in clustered samples. Stata Technical Bulletin, 3(13), 19–23.
   Google Scholar
• Roura, M., Urassa, M., Busza, J., Mbata, D., Wringe, A., & Zaba, B. (2009). Scaling up stigma? The effects of antiretroviral roll-out on stigma and HIV testing. Early evidence from rural Tanzania. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 85(4), 308–312. doi:10.1136/sti.2008.033183
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandelowski, M., Lambe, C., & Barroso, J. (2004). Stigma in HIV-positive women. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 36(2), 122–128. doi:10.1111/j.1547-5069.2004.04024.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sayles, J. N., Wong, M. D., Kinsler, J. J., Martins, D., & Cunningham, W. E. (2009). The association of stigma with self-reported access to medical care and antiretroviral therapy adherence in persons living with HIV/AIDS. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 24(10), 1101–1108. doi:10.1007/s11606-009-1068-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scambler, G., & Paoli, F. (2008). Health work, female sex workers and HIV/AIDS: Global and local dimensions of stigma and deviance as barriers to effective interventions. Social Science & Medicine, 66(8), 1848–1862. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.01.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Semple, S. J., Strathdee, S. A., Zians, J., & Patterson, T. L. (2012). Factors associated with experiences of stigma in a sample of HIV-positive, methamphetamine-using men who have sex with men. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 125(1–2), 154–159. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.04.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sengupta, S., Banks, B., Jonas, D., Miles, M. S., & Smith, G. C. (2011). HIV interventions to reduce HIV/AIDS stigma: A systematic review. AIDS and Behavior, 15(6), 1075–1087. doi:10.1007/s10461-010-9847-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva, P. (2013, July 3). Why is Brazil moving backwards on HIV? AKIMBO: International Women's Health Coalition. Retrieved August 22, 2013, from http://blog.iwhc.org/2013/07/03/why-is-brazil-moving-backwards-on-hiv/
   Google Scholar
• Simbayi, L. C., Kalichman, S. C., Strebel, A., Cloete, A., Henda, N., & Mqeketo, A. (2007a). Disclosure of HIV status to sex partners and sexual risk behaviours among HIV-positive men and women, Cape Town, South Africa. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 83(1), 29–34. doi:10.1136/sti.2006.019893
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simbayi, L. C., Kalichman, S. C., Strebel, A., Cloete, A., Henda, N., & Mqeketo, A. (2007b, May). Internalized stigma, discrimination, and depression among men and women living with HIV/AIDS in Cape Town, South Africa. Social Science & Medicine, 64(9), 1823–31. Epub 2007 Mar 2. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.01.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stangl, A. L., Lloyd, J. K., Brady, L. M., Holland, C. E., & Baral, S. (2013). A systematic review of interventions to reduce HIV-related stigma and discrimination from 2002–2013: How far have we come? Journal of the International AIDS Society, 16(3 Suppl 2), 18734. doi:10.7448/IAS.16.3.18734
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The World Bank. Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in Brazil. Retrieved November 26, 2014, from http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD
   Google Scholar
• UNAIDS. (2014). The GAP report 2014. Retrieved from http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/01_PeoplelivingwithHIV.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Ware, N. C., Wyatt, M. A., & Tugenberg, T. (2006). Social relationships, stigma and adherence to antiretroviral therapy for HIV/AIDS. AIDS Care, 18(8), 904–910. doi:10.1080/09540120500330554
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss, M. G., Ramakrishna, J., & Somma, D. (2006, August). Health-related stigma: Rethinking concepts and interventions. Psychology, Health, & Medicine, 11(3), 277–287. doi:10.1080/13548500600595053
   PubMedGoogle Scholar