Assessing the social patterning and magnitude of inequalities in sexual violence among young women in Uganda: Findings from 2016 demographic and health survey

References

• Abramsky, T., Devries, K., Kiss, L., Francisco, L., Nakuti, J., Musuya, T., Kyegombe, N., Starmann, E., Kaye, D., Michau, L., & Watts, C. (2012). A community mobilisation intervention to prevent violence against women and reduce HIV/AIDS risk in Kampala, Uganda (the SASA! Study): Study protocol for a cluster randomised controlled trial. Trials, 13(1), 96. https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-6215-13-96
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ActionAid. (2013). Stop violence against girls in school: Make girls’ rights to education a reality! https://actionaid.org/publications/2013/stop-violence-against-girls-school
   Google Scholar
• Antai, D., Antai, J., & Anthony, D. S. (2014). The relationship between socio-economic inequalities, intimate partner violence and economic abuse: A national study of women in the Philippines. Global Public Health, 9(7), 808–826. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2014.917195
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellis, M. A., Hughes, K., Leckenby, N., Perkins, C., & Lowey, H. (2014). National household survey of adverse childhood experiences and their relationship with resilience to health-harming behaviors in England. BMC Medicine, 12(1), 72. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-12-72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briggs, E. C., Thompson, R., Ostrowski, S., & Lekwauwa, R. (2011). Psychological, health, behavioral, and economic impact of child maltreatment. In J. W. White, M. P. Koss, & A. E. Kazdin (Eds.), Violence against women and children, Vol. 1. Mapping the terrain (pp. 77–97). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12307-004
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, J. A., Walker, R. J., & Egede, L. E. (2016). Associations between adverse childhood experiences, high-risk behaviors, and morbidity in adulthood. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 50(3), 344–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.07.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chae, S. (2013). Timing of orphanhood, early sexual debut, and early marriage in four sub-Saharan African countries. Studies in Family Planning, 44(2), 123–146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00349.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Decker, M. R., Seage III, G. R., Hemenway, D., Raj, A., Saggurti, N., Balaiah, D., & Silverman, J. G. (2009). Intimate partner violence functions as both a risk marker and risk factor for women’s HIV infection: Findings from Indian husband-wife dyads. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 51(5), 593–600. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181a255d6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunkle, K. L., & Decker, M. R. (2013). Gender-based violence and HIV: Reviewing the evidence for links and causal pathways in the general population and high-risk groups. American Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 69, 20–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/aji.12039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erulkar, A. (2013). Early marriage, marital relations and intimate partner violence in Ethiopia. In International perspectives on sexual and reproductive health (pp. 6–13).
   Google Scholar
• Fan, A. Z., Kress, H., Gupta, S., Wadonda-Kabondo, N., Shawa, M., & Mercy, J. (2016). Do self-reported data reflect the real burden of lifetime exposure to sexual violence among females aged 13–24 years in Malawi? Child Abuse & Neglect, 58, 72–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.05.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fang, X., Fry, D. A., Brown, D. S., Mercy, J. A., Dunne, M. P., Butchart, A. R., Corso, P. S., Maynzyuk, K., Dzhygyr, Y., Chen, Y., McCoy, A., & Swales, D. M. (2015). The burden of child maltreatment in the East Asia and Pacific region. Child Abuse & Neglect, 42, 146–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.02.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filmer, D., & Pritchett, L. H. (2001). Estimating wealth effects without expenditure data—or tears: An application to educational enrollments in states of India. Demography, 38(1), 115–132. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2001.0003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fry, D., Fang, X., Elliott, S., Casey, T., Zheng, X., Li, J., Florian, L., & McCluskey, G. (2018). The relationships between violence in childhood and educational outcomes: A global systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 75, 6–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.06.021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fulu, E., Miedema, S., Roselli, T., McCook, S., Chan, K. L., Haardörfer, R., Jewkes, R., Fulu, E., Jewkes, R., Warner, X., Miedema, S., Roselli, T., Lang, J., Naved, R. T., Huque, H., Farah, S., Shuvra, M. M. R., Erken, A., Xiangxian, W., … Johnson, S. (2017). Pathways between childhood trauma, intimate partner violence, and harsh parenting: Findings from the UN multi-country study on men and violence in Asia and the Pacific. The Lancet Global Health, 5(5), e512–e522. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30103-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• García-Moreno, C., Pallitto, C., Devries, K., Stöckl, H., Watts, C., & Abrahams, N. (2013). Global and regional estimates of violence against women: Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241564625
   Google Scholar
• Griggs, D., Stafford-Smith, M., Gaffney, O., Rockström, J., Öhman, M. C., Shyamsundar, P., Steffen, W., Glaser, G., Kanie, N., & Noble, I. (2013). Sustainable development goals for people and planet. Nature, 495(7441), 305–307. https://doi.org/10.1038/495305a
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gubi, D., Nansubuga, E., & Wandera, S. O. (2020). Correlates of intimate partner violence among married women in Uganda: A cross-sectional survey. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09123-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guedes, A., Bott, S., Garcia-Moreno, C., & Colombini, M. (2016). Bridging the gaps: A global review of intersections of violence against women and violence against children. Global Health Action, 9(1), 31516. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v9.31516
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heise, L., Ellsberg, M., & Gottmoeller, M. (2002). A global overview of gender-based violence. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 78, S5–S14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7292(02)00038-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong Le, M. T., Tran, T. D., Nguyen, H. T., & Fisher, J. (2014). Early marriage and intimate partner violence among adolescents and young adults in Viet Nam. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(5), 889–910. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513505710
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hosseinpoor, A. R., Bergen, N., Schlotheuber, A., & Boerma, T. (2018). National health inequality monitoring: Current challenges and opportunities. Global Health Action, 11(sup1), 1392216–1392216. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2017.1392216
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hosseinpoor, A. R., Schlotheuber, A., Nambiar, D., & Ross, Z. (2018). Health Equity Assessment Toolkit Plus (HEAT Plus): Software for exploring and comparing health inequalities using uploaded datasets. Global Health Action, 11(sup1), 20–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2018.1440783
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., Hardcastle, K. A., Sethi, D., Butchart, A., Mikton, C., Jones, L., & Dunne, M. P. (2017). The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Public Health, 2(8), e356–e366. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30118-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Izugbara, C. O., Obiyan, M. O., Degfie, T. T., & Bhatti, A. (2020). Correlates of intimate partner violence among urban women in sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS One, 15(3), e0230508. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0230508
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jewkes, R., Dunkle, K., Nduna, M., & Shai, N. (2010). Intimate partner violence, relationship power inequity, and incidence of HIV infection in young women in South Africa: A cohort study. The Lancet, 376(9734), 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60548-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jewkes, R., Martin, L., & Penn-Kekana, L. (2002). The virgin cleansing myth: Cases of child rape are not exotic. The Lancet, 359(9307), 711. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07794-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jewkes, R., Penn-Kekana, L., & Rose-Junius, H. (2005). “If they rape me, I can’t blame them”: Reflections on gender in the social context of child rape in South Africa and Namibia. Social Science & Medicine, 61(8), 1809–1820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.03.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karamagi, C. A., Tumwine, J. K., Tylleskar, T., & Heggenhougen, K. (2006). Intimate partner violence against women in eastern Uganda: Implications for HIV prevention. BMC Public Health, 6(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-6-284
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kinyanda, E., Musisi, S., Biryabarema, C., Ezati, I., Oboke, H., Ojiambo-Ochieng, R., Were-Oguttu, J., Levin, J., Grosskurth, H., & Walugembe, J. (2010). War related sexual violence and it’s medical and psychological consequences as seen in Kitgum, Northern Uganda: A cross-sectional study. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 10(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-698X-10-28
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenig, M. A., Zablotska, I., Lutalo, T., Nalugoda, F., Wagman, J., & Gray, R. (2004). Coerced first intercourse and reproductive health among adolescent women in Rakai, Uganda. International Family Planning Perspectives, 30(04), 156–163. https://doi.org/10.1363/3015604
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kouyoumdjian, F. G., Calzavara, L. M., Bondy, S. J., O’campo, P., Serwadda, D., Nalugoda, F., Kagaayi, J., Kigozi, G., Wawer, M., & Gray, R. (2013a). Intimate partner violence is associated with incident HIV infection in women in Uganda. AIDS, 27(8), 1331–1338. https://doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e32835fd851
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kouyoumdjian, F. G., Calzavara, L. M., Bondy, S. J., O’Campo, P., Serwadda, D., Nalugoda, F., Kagaayi, J., Kigozi, G., Wawer, M., & Gray, R. (2013b). Risk factors for intimate partner violence in women in the Rakai Community Cohort Study, Uganda, from 2000 to 2009. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-566
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lachman, J., Spreckelsen, T. F., Wamoyi, J., Wight, D., Maganga, J., & Gardner, F. (2020). Combining economic strengthening and parenting programmes to reduce violence against children in rural Tanzania: A cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ Global Health, 5(7), e002349. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-002349
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathur, S., Greene, M., & Malhotra, A. (2003). Too young to wed: The lives, rights and health of young married girls. https://www.issuelab.org/resources/11421/11421.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Meinck, F., Cluver, L. D., Boyes, M. E., & Mhlongo, E. L. (2015). Risk and protective factors for physical and sexual abuse of children and adolescents in Africa: A review and implications for practice. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 16(1), 81–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014523336
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development (MGLSD). (2015). Violence against children (VACS) in Uganda: Findings from a national survey, 2015. https://www.unicef.org/uganda/sites/unicef.org.uganda/files/2018-08/VACS20Report20lores_1.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Nguyen, M. C., & Wodon, Q. (2014). Impact of child marriage on literacy and education attainment in Africa. UNICEF and UNESCO Statistics. https://www.allinschool.org/media/1956/file/Paper-OOSCI-Child-Marriage-Literacy-Education-2014-en.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Nyato, D., Materu, J., Kuringe, E., Zoungrana, J., Mjungu, D., Lemwayi, R., Majani, E., Mtenga, B., Nnko, S., Munisi, G., Shao, A., Wambura, M., Changalucha, J., Drake, M., Komba, A., & Stark, L. (2019). Prevalence and correlates of partner violence among adolescent girls and young women: Evidence from baseline data of a cluster randomised trial in Tanzania. PLoS One, 14(10), e0222950. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222950
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ononge, S., Wandabwa, J., Kiondo, P., & Busingye, R. (2005). Clinical presentation and management of alleged sexually assaulted females at Mulago hospital, Kampala, Uganda. African Health Sciences, 5(1), 50–54.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pereznieto, P., Montes, A., Routier, S., & Langston, L. (2014). The costs and economic impact of violence against children. https://www.odi.org/publications/8845-costs-and-economic-impact-violence-against-children
   Google Scholar
• Petersen, I., Bhana, A., & McKay, M. (2005). Sexual violence and youth in South Africa: The need for community-based prevention interventions. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29(11), 1233–1248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.02.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ranabhat, C. L., Kim, C. B., Park, M. B., & Acharaya, S. (2017). Multiple disparities in adult mortality in relation to social and health care perspective: Results from different data sources. Globalization and Health, 13(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-017-0283-z
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Romano, E., Babchishin, L., Marquis, R., & Fréchette, S. (2015). Childhood maltreatment and educational outcomes. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 16(4), 418–437. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014537908
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutstein, S. O., & Rojas, G. (2006). Guide to DHS statistics. https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/DHSG1/Guide_to_DHS_Statistics_29Oct2012_DHSG1.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Schlecht, J., Rowley, E., & Babirye, J. (2013). Early relationships and marriage in conflict and post-conflict settings: Vulnerability of youth in Uganda. Reproductive Health Matters, 21(41), 234–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0968-8080(13)41710-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi, C.-F., Kouyoumdjian, F. G., & Dushoff, J. (2013). Intimate partner violence is associated with HIV infection in women in Kenya: A cross-sectional analysis. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 512. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-512
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shomali, A. Y., & Lawson, D. (2020). Children, forced and early marriage: Preventing and responding to early marriage in Uganda. In A. Y. Shomali & D. Lawson (Eds.), Gender, poverty and access to justice (pp. 34–55). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Sia, D., Yentema, O., Hajizadeh, M., Heymann, S. J., Brewer, T. F., & Nandi, A. (2016). What explains gender inequalities in HIV/AIDS prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa? Evidence from the demographic and health surveys. BMC Public Health, 16(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3783-5
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Silverman, J. G., Decker, M. R., Saggurti, N., Balaiah, D., & Raj, A. (2008). Intimate partner violence and HIV infection among married Indian women. JAMA, 300(6), 703–710. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.300.6.703
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh, S., & Samara, R. (1996). Early marriage among women in developing countries. International Family Planning Perspectives, 22(4), 148–175. https://doi.org/10.2307/2950812
   Google Scholar
• Speizer, I. S. (2010). Intimate partner violence attitudes and experience among women and men in Uganda. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(7), 1224–1241. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509340550
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Speizer, I. S., & Pearson, E. (2011). Association between early marriage and intimate partner violence in India: A focus on youth from Bihar and Rajasthan. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(10), 1963–1981. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510372947
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stark, L. (2018). Poverty, consent, and choice in early marriage: Ethnographic perspectives from urban Tanzania. Marriage & Family Review, 54(6), 565–581. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2017.1403998
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swahn, M. H., Dill, L. J., Palmier, J. B., & Kasirye, R. (2015). Girls and young women living in the slums of Kampala: Prevalence and correlates of physical and sexual violence victimization. Sage Open, 5(2), 215824401558085. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244015580853
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka, M., Georgiades, K., Boyle, M. H., & MacMillan, H. L. (2015). Child maltreatment and educational attainment in young adulthood: Results from the Ontario Child Health Study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(2), 195–214. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514533153
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Topping, K. J., & Barron, I. G. (2009). School-based child sexual abuse prevention programs: A review of effectiveness. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 431–463. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308325582
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tran, T. D., Nguyen, H., & Fisher, J. (2016). Attitudes towards intimate partner violence against women among women and men in 39 low-and middle-income countries. PLoS One, 11(11), e0167438. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0167438
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS) and ICF. (2018). Uganda Demographic and Health Survey 2016. Kampala, Uganda and Rockville, Maryland, USA: UBOS and ICF.
   Google Scholar
• Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS). (2017). Uganda demographic and health survey 2016. UBOS and ICF International. https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR333/FR333.pdf
   Google Scholar
• UNICEF. (2014). Hidden in plain sight: A statistical analysis of violence against children. https://data.unicef.org/resources/hidden-in-plain-sight-a-statistical-analysis-of-violence-against-children/
   Google Scholar
• Uthman, O. A., Lawoko, S., & Moradi, T. (2009). Factors associated with attitudes towards intimate partner violence against women: A comparative analysis of 17 sub-Saharan countries. BMC International Health and Human Rights, 9(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-698X-9-14
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Walsh, D., McCartney, G., Smith, M., & Armour, G. (2019). Relationship between childhood socioeconomic position and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs): A systematic review. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 73(12), 1087. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2019-212738
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wandera, S. O., Kwagala, B., Ndugga, P., & Kabagenyi, A. (2015). Partners’ controlling behaviors and intimate partner sexual violence among married women in Uganda. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 214. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-1564-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waters, H. R., Hyder, A. A., Rajkotia, Y., Basu, S., & Butchart, A. (2005). The costs of interpersonal violence—an international review. Health Policy, 73(3), 303–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthpol.2004.11.022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Workineh, S., Kibretb, G. D., & Degu, G. (2015). Determinants of early marriage among female children in Sinan district, Northwest Ethiopia. Health Science Journal, 9(6), 1.
   Google Scholar
• World Bank. (2017). Uganda economic update, December 2017: Accelerating Uganda’s development, ending child marriage, educating girls. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29031
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2013a). Global and regional estimates of violence against women: Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241564625
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). 2013b. Handbook on health inequality monitoring: With a special focus on low- and middle-income countries. World Health Organization. ISBN 978 92 4 154863 2
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2019). Health Equity Assessment Toolkit (HEAT). Software for exploring and comparing health inequalities in countries. Built in database edition. Version 3.1. Technical Notes. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/gho/health_equity/heat_technical_notes_vJul2019.pdf?ua=1
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2020a). Health Equity Assessment Toolkit Plus (HEAT Plus): Software for exploring and comparing health inequalities in countries (Version 3.0 (beta)). World Health Organization.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2020b). Health equity monitor database. https://www-who-int.proxy.lib.umich.edu/data/gho/data/themes/health-equity
   Google Scholar
• Zablotska, I. B., Gray, R. H., Koenig, M. A., Serwadda, D., Nalugoda, F., Kigozi, G., Sewankambo, N., Lutalo, T., Mangen, F. W., & Wawer, M. (2009). Alcohol use, intimate partner violence, sexual coercion and HIV among women aged 15–24 in Rakai, Uganda. AIDS and Behavior, 13(2), 225–233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-007-9333-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar