Beyond weight loss: current perspectives on the impact of calorie restriction on healthspan and lifespan

References

• Speakman JR, Mitchell SE. Caloric restriction. Mol Aspects Med. 2011;32(3):159–221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oeppen J, Vaupel JW. Demography. Broken limits to life expectancy. Science. 2002;296(5570):1029–1031.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rae MJ, Butler RN, Campisi J, et al. The demographic and biomedical case for late-life interventions in aging. Sci Transl Med. 2010;2(40):40cm21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dorling JL, Van Vliet S, Huffman KM, et al. Effects of caloric restriction on human physiological, psychological, and behavioral outcomes: highlights from CALERIE phase 2. Nutr Rev. 2021;79(1):98–113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belsky DW, Caspi A, Houts R, et al. Quantification of biological aging in young adults. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2015;112(30):E4104–4110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willcox BJ, Willcox DC, Todoriki H, et al. Caloric restriction, the traditional Okinawan diet, and healthy aging: the diet of the world’s longest-lived people and its potential impact on morbidity and life span. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1114(1):434–455.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heilbronn LK, Ravussin E. Calorie restriction and aging: review of the literature and implications for studies in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78(3):361–369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Racette SB, Weiss EP, Villareal DT, et al. One year of caloric restriction in humans: feasibility and effects on body composition and abdominal adipose tissue. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2006;61(9):943–950.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heilbronn LK, De Jonge L, Frisard MI, et al. Effect of 6-month calorie restriction on biomarkers of longevity, metabolic adaptation, and oxidative stress in overweight individuals: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2006;295(13):1539–1548.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pittas AG, Das SK, Hajduk CL, et al. A low-glycemic load diet facilitates greater weight loss in overweight adults with high insulin secretion but not in overweight adults with low insulin secretion in the CALERIE trial. Diabetes Care. 2005;28(12):2939–2941.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redman LM, Kraus WE, Bhapkar M, et al. Energy requirements in nonobese men and women: results from CALERIE. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;99(1):71–78.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rickman AD, Williamson DA, Martin CK, et al. The CALERIE study: design and methods of an innovative 25% caloric restriction intervention. Contemp Clin Trials. 2011;32(6):874–881.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravussin E, Redman LM, Rochon J, et al. A 2-Year randomized controlled trial of human caloric restriction: feasibility and effects on predictors of health Span and longevity. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2015;70(9):1097–1104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redman LM, Heilbronn LK, Martin CK, et al. Effect of calorie restriction with or without exercise on body composition and fat distribution. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007;92(3):865–872.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das SK, Roberts SB, Bhapkar MV, et al. Body-composition changes in the Comprehensive Assessment of Long-term Effects of Reducing Intake of Energy (CALERIE)-2 study: a 2-y randomized controlled trial of calorie restriction in nonobese humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2017;105(4):913–927.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravussin E, Lillioja S, Anderson TE, et al. Determinants of 24-hour energy expenditure in man. Methods and results using a respiratory chamber. J Clin Invest. 1986;78(6):1568–1578.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Speakman JR. Body size, energy metabolism and lifespan. J Exp Biol. 2005;208(Pt 9):1717–1730.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redman LM, Smith SR, Burton JH, et al. Metabolic slowing and reduced oxidative damage with sustained caloric restriction support the rate of living and oxidative damage theories of aging. Cell Metab. 2018;27(4):805–815 e804.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chistiakov DA, Sobenin IA, Revin VV, et al. Mitochondrial aging and age-related dysfunction of mitochondria. Biomed Res Int. 2014;238463:2014.
   Google Scholar
• Zorov DB, Juhaszova M, Sollott SJ. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ROS-induced ROS release. Physiol Rev. 2014;94(3):909–950.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bottje WG. Oxidative metabolism and efficiency: the delicate balancing act of mitochondria. Poult Sci. 2019;98(10):4223–4230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harman D. Free radical theory of aging. Mutat Res. 1992;275(3–6):257–266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weyer C, Walford RL, Harper IT, et al. Energy metabolism after 2 y of energy restriction: the biosphere 2 experiment. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72(4):946–953.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iwen KA, Oelkrug R, Brabant G. Effects of thyroid hormones on thermogenesis and energy partitioning. J Mol Endocrinol. 2018;60(3):R157–R170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sparks LM, Redman LM, Conley KE, et al. Effects of 12 months of caloric restriction on muscle mitochondrial function in healthy individuals. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;102(1):111–121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Civitarese AE, Carling S, Heilbronn LK, et al. Calorie restriction increases muscle mitochondrial biogenesis in healthy humans. PLoS Med. 2007;4(3):e76.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buffenstein R, Pinto M. Endocrine function in naturally long-living small mammals. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2009;299(1):101–111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meydani SN, Das SK, Pieper CF, et al. Long-term moderate calorie restriction inhibits inflammation without impairing cell-mediated immunity: a randomized controlled trial in non-obese humans. Aging (Albany NY). 2016;8(7):1416–1431.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Muller MJ, Enderle J, Pourhassan M, et al. Metabolic adaptation to caloric restriction and subsequent refeeding: the minnesota starvation experiment revisited. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;102(4):807–819.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holloszy JO. Biochemical adaptations in muscle. Effects of exercise on mitochondrial oxygen uptake and respiratory enzyme activity in skeletal muscle. J Biol Chem. 1967;242(9):2278–2282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katerji M, Filippova M, Duerksen-Hughes P. Approaches and methods to measure oxidative stress in clinical samples: research applications in the cancer field. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2019;1–29.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts LJ 2nd, Milne GL. Isoprostanes. J Lipid Res. 2009;50(Suppl):S219–223.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Il’yasova D, Fontana L, Bhapkar M, et al. Effects of 2 years of caloric restriction on oxidative status assessed by urinary F2-isoprostanes: the CALERIE 2 randomized clinical trial. Aging Cell. 2018;17(2). DOI:10.1111/acel.12719.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muchnik A, editor. WHO reveals leading causes of death and disability worldwide: 2000-2019. Organization WH. 2020. Switzerland.
   Google Scholar
• North BJ, Sinclair DA. The intersection between aging and cardiovascular disease. Circ Res. 2012;110(8):1097–1108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tackling G, Borhade MB. Hypertensive heart disease. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539800/
   Google Scholar
• Stapleton PA, James ME, Goodwill AG, et al. Obesity and vascular dysfunction. Pathophysiology. 2008;15(2):79–89.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gotto AM Jr. Jeremiah Metzger Lecture: cholesterol, inflammation and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: is it all LDL? Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc. 2011;122:256–289.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Linton MRF, Yancey PG, Davies SS, et al. The role of lipids and lipoproteins in atherosclerosis. In: Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Boyce A, editors. Endotext. South Dartmouth (MA): 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Linton MRF, Yancey PG, Davies SS, et al. The Role of Lipids and Lipoproteins in Atherosclerosis. [Updated 2019 Jan 3]. In: Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Boyce A, et al., editors. Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000–
   Google Scholar
• Mirzaei H, Di Biase S, Longo VD. Dietary interventions, cardiovascular aging, and disease: animal models and human studies. Circ Res. 2016;118(10):1612–1625.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fontana L, Meyer TE, Klein S, et al. Long-term calorie restriction is highly effective in reducing the risk for atherosclerosis in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101(17):6659–6663.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Most J, Gilmore LA, Smith SR, et al. Significant improvement in cardiometabolic health in healthy nonobese individuals during caloric restriction-induced weight loss and weight loss maintenance. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2018;314(4):E396–E405.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kraus WE, Bhapkar M, Huffman KM, et al. 2 years of calorie restriction and cardiometabolic risk (CALERIE): exploratory outcomes of a multicentre, phase 2, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2019;7(9):673–683.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lefevre M, Redman LM, Heilbronn LK, et al. Caloric restriction alone and with exercise improves CVD risk in healthy non-obese individuals. Atherosclerosis. 2009;203(1):206–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prevention CfDCa. Prevalence of both diagnosed and undiagnosed diabetes. editor. Diabetes. 2020.  Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/data/statistics-report/diagnosed-undiagnosed-diabetes.html
   Google Scholar
• Saeedi P, Petersohn I, Salpea P, et al. Global and regional diabetes prevalence estimates for 2019 and projections for 2030 and 2045: results from the international diabetes federation diabetes Atlas, 9(th) edition. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2019;157:107843.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kolb H, Martin S. Environmental/lifestyle factors in the pathogenesis and prevention of type 2 diabetes. BMC Med. 2017;15(1):131.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Al-Goblan AS, Al-Alfi MA, Khan MZ. Mechanism linking diabetes mellitus and obesity. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes. 2014;7(587–591):587–591.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• InterAct C, Scott RA, Langenberg C, et al. The link between family history and risk of type 2 diabetes is not explained by anthropometric, lifestyle or genetic risk factors: the EPIC-InterAct study. Diabetologia. 2013;56(1):60–69.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu FB. Globalization of diabetes: the role of diet, lifestyle, and genes. Diabetes Care. 2011;34(6):1249–1257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalyani RR, Corriere M, Ferrucci L. Age-related and disease-related muscle loss: the effect of diabetes, obesity, and other diseases. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2014;2(10):819–829.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longo M, Bellastella G, Maiorino MI, et al. Diabetes and aging: from treatment goals to pharmacologic therapy. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2019;10(45). DOI:10.3389/fendo.2019.00045
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chia CW, Egan JM, Ferrucci L. Age-Related changes in glucose metabolism, hyperglycemia, and cardiovascular risk. Circ Res. 2018;123(7):886–904.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geloneze B, De Oliveira Mda S, Vasques AC, et al. Impaired incretin secretion and pancreatic dysfunction with older age and diabetes. Metabolism. 2014;63(7):922–929.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirkman MS, Briscoe VJ, Clark N, et al. Diabetes in older adults: a consensus report. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012;60(12):2342–2356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saltiel AR, Kahn CR. Insulin signalling and the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism. Nature. 2001;414(6865):799–806.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cryer PE. Regulation of glucose metabolism in man. J Int Med Suppl. 1991;735(31–39):31–39.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gems D, Partridge L. Genetics of longevity in model organisms: debates and paradigm shifts. Annu Rev Physiol. 2013;75(1):621–644.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kenyon C, Chang J, Gensch E, et al. elegans mutant that lives twice as long as wild type. Nature. 1993;366(6454):461–464.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aiello A, Accardi G, Candore G, et al. Nutrient sensing pathways as therapeutic targets for healthy ageing. Expert Opin Ther Targets. 2017;21(4):371–380.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattison JA, Roth GS, Beasley TM, et al. Impact of caloric restriction on health and survival in rhesus monkeys from the NIA study. Nature. 2012;489(7415):318–321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fontana L, Partridge L, Longo VD. Extending healthy life span–from yeast to humans. Science. 2010;328(5976):321–326.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colman RJ, Anderson RM, Johnson SC, et al. Caloric restriction delays disease onset and mortality in rhesus monkeys. Science. 2009;325(5937):201–204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larson-Meyer DE, Heilbronn LK, Redman LM, et al. Effect of calorie restriction with or without exercise on insulin sensitivity, beta-cell function, fat cell size, and ectopic lipid in overweight subjects. Diabetes Care. 2006;29(6):1337–1344.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss EP, Racette SB, Villareal DT, et al. Improvements in glucose tolerance and insulin action induced by increasing energy expenditure or decreasing energy intake: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;84(5):1033–1042.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kadowaki T, Yamauchi T, Kubota N, et al. Adiponectin and adiponectin receptors in insulin resistance, diabetes, and the metabolic syndrome. J Clin Invest. 2006;116(7):1784–1792.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heilbronn LK, Noakes M, Clifton PM. The effect of high- and low-glycemic index energy restricted diets on plasma lipid and glucose profiles in type 2 diabetic subjects with varying glycemic control. J Am Coll Nutr. 2002;21(2):120–127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das SK, Gilhooly CH, Golden JK. et al. Long term effects of energy-restricted diets differing in glycemic load on metabolic adaptation and body composition. Open Nutr J. 2007;85(4):1023–1030.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pittas AG, Roberts SB, Das SK, et al. The effects of the dietary glycemic load on type 2 diabetes risk factors during weight loss. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006;14(12):2200–2209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Netea MG, Balkwill F, Chonchol M, et al. A guiding map for inflammation. Nat Immunol. 2017;18(8):826–831.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotas ME, Medzhitov R. Homeostasis, inflammation, and disease susceptibility. Cell. 2015;160(5):816–827.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Germolec DR, Shipkowski KA, Frawley RP, et al. Markers of inflammation. Methods Mol Biol. 1803;57-79:2018.
   Google Scholar
• Ferrucci L, Fabbri E. Inflammageing: chronic inflammation in ageing, cardiovascular disease, and frailty. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2018;15(9):505–522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howcroft TK, Campisi J, Louis GB, et al. The role of inflammation in age-related disease. Aging (Albany NY). 2013;5(1):84–93.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Franceschi C, Campisi J. Chronic inflammation (inflammaging) and its potential contribution to age-associated diseases. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2014;69(Suppl 1):S4–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franceschi C, Garagnani P, Parini P, et al. Inflammaging: a new immune-metabolic viewpoint for age-related diseases. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018;14(10):576–590.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall JS, Warrington R, Watson W, et al. An introduction to immunology and immunopathology. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol. 2018;14(Suppl 2):49.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ritz BW, Aktan I, Nogusa S, et al. Energy restriction impairs natural killer cell function and increases the severity of influenza infection in young adult male C57BL/6 mice. J Nutr. 2008;138(11):2269–2275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner EM. Caloric restriction decreases survival of aged mice in response to primary influenza infection. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2005;60(6):688–694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone WL, Leavitt L, Varacallo M. Physiology, growth factor. In: StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL); 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Harada M, Kamimura D, Arima Y, et al. Temporal expression of growth factors triggered by epiregulin regulates inflammation development. J Immunol. 2015;194(3):1039–1046.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartke A, Westbrook R, Sun L, et al. Links between growth hormone and aging. Endokrynol Pol. 2013;64(1):46–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fontana L, Villareal DT, Das SK, et al. Effects of 2-year calorie restriction on circulating levels of IGF-1, IGF-binding proteins and cortisol in nonobese men and women: a randomized clinical trial. Aging Cell. 2016;15(1):22–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spicer LJ, Chamberlain CS. Influence of cortisol on insulin- and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)-induced steroid production and on IGF-1 receptors in cultured bovine granulosa cells and thecal cells. Endocrine. 1998;9(2):153–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuna HD, Edeer AO, Malkoc M, et al. Effect of age and physical activity level on functional fitness in older adults. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act. 2009;6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holviala J, Hakkinen A, Alen M, et al. Effects of prolonged and maintenance strength training on force production, walking, and balance in aging women and men. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2014;24(1):224–233.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Du Y, Liu B, Sun Y, et al. Trends in Adherence to the physical activity guidelines for Americans for aerobic activity and time spent on sedentary behavior among US adults, 2007 to 2016. JAMA Network Open. 2019;2(7):e197597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker J, Meisner BA, Logan AJ, et al. Physical activity and successful aging in Canadian older adults. J Aging Phys Act. 2009;17(2):223–235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossi AP, Micciolo R, Rubele S, et al. Adiponectin and adiponectin receptors in insulin resistance, diabetes, and the metabolic syndrome. J Nutr Health Aging. 2006;116(7):743–749.
   Google Scholar
• Klenk J, Kerse N, Rapp K, et al. Physical activity and different concepts of fall risk estimation in older people–results of the ActiFE-Ulm study. PLoS One. 2015;10(6):e0129098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention NCfIPaC. Older adult fall prevention. editor. 2020. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/falls/index.html
   Google Scholar
• Roberts CE, Phillips LH, Cooper CL, et al. Effect of different types of physical activity on activities of daily living in older adults: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Aging Phys Act. 2017;25(4):653–670.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McPhee JS, French DP, Jackson D, et al. Physical activity in older age: perspectives for healthy ageing and frailty. Biogerontology. 2016;17(3):567–580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villareal DT, Fontana L, Das SK, et al. Effect of two-Year caloric restriction on bone metabolism and bone mineral density in non-obese younger adults: a randomized clinical trial. J Bone Miner Res. 2016;31(1):40–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Racette SB, Rochon J, Uhrich ML, et al. Effects of two years of calorie restriction on aerobic capacity and muscle strength. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2017;49(11):2240–2249.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larson-Meyer DE, Redman L, Heilbronn LK, et al. Caloric restriction with or without exercise: the fitness versus fatness debate. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42(1):152–159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institutes of Mental Health. Mental Illness. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2021. Available from: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/mental-illness.shtml
   Google Scholar
• Lando J, Williams SM, Williams B, et al. A logic model for the integration of mental health into chronic disease prevention and health promotion. Prev Chronic Dis. 2006;3(2):A61.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chapman DP, Perry GS, Strine TW. The vital link between chronic disease and depressive disorders. Prev Chronic Dis. 2005;2(1):A14.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Manchishi SM, Cui RJ, Zou XH, et al. Effect of caloric restriction on depression. J Cell Mol Med. 2018;22(5):2528–2535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang Y, Liu C, Zhao Y, et al. The effects of calorie restriction in depression and potential mechanisms. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2015;13(4):536–542.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalm LM, Semba RD. They starved so that others be better fed: remembering ancel keys and the minnesota experiment. J Nutr. 2005;135(6):1347–1352.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leclerc E, Trevizol AP, Grigolon RB, et al. The effect of caloric restriction on working memory in healthy non-obese adults. CNS Spectr. 2020;25(1):2–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemps E, Tiggemann M. Working memory performance and preoccupying thoughts in female dieters: evidence for a selective central executive impairment. Br J Clin Psychol. 2005;44(Pt 3):357–366.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martin CK, Bhapkar M, Pittas AG, et al. Effect of calorie restriction on mood, quality of life, sleep, and sexual function in healthy nonobese adults: the CALERIE 2 randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176(6):743–752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laviano A, Lazzaro LD, Koverech A. Changes in eating behavior, taste and food preferences and the effects of gastrointestinal hormones. Clinl Nutr Exp. 2018;20: 65–70.
   Google Scholar
• Palmer VJ, Gray CM, Fitzsimons CF, et al. What do older people do when sitting and why? Implications for decreasing sedentary behavior. Gerontologist. 2019;59(4):686–697.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stepnowsky CJ, Ancoli-Israel S. Sleep and its disorders in seniors. Sleep Med Clin. 2008;3(2):281–293.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Merghati-Khoei E, Pirak A, Yazdkhasti M, et al. Sexuality and elderly with chronic diseases: a review of the existing literature. J Res Med Sci. 2016;21(136). DOI:10.4103/1735-1995.196618
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Taylor A, Gosney MA. Sexuality in older age: essential considerations for healthcare professionals. Age Ageing. 2011;40(5):538–543.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williamson DA, Martin CK, Anton SD, et al. Is caloric restriction associated with development of eating-disorder symptoms? Results from the CALERIE trial. Health Psychol. 2008;27(1S):S32–42.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dorling JL, Bhapkar M, Das SK, et al. Change in self-efficacy, eating behaviors and food cravings during two years of calorie restriction in humans without obesity. Appetite. 2019;143:104397.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medic G, Wille M, Hemels ME. Short- and long-term health consequences of sleep disruption. Nat Sci Sleep. 2017;9(151–161):151–161.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marlatt KL, Redman LM, Burton JH, et al. Persistence of weight loss and acquired behaviors 2 y after stopping a 2-y calorie restriction intervention. Am J Clin Nutr. 2017;105(4):928–935.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Bourg E, Redman LM. Do-It-Yourself calorie restriction: the risks of simplistically translating findings in animal models to humans. Bioessays. 2018;40(9):e1800087.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Look ARG, Pi-Sunyer X, Blackburn G, et al. Reduction in weight and cardiovascular disease risk factors in individuals with type 2 diabetes: one-year results of the look AHEAD trial. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(6):1374–1383.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, et al. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(6):393–403.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone AA, Shiffman S. Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) in behavorial medicine. Ann Behav Med. 1994;16(3):199–202.
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell SJ, Bernier M, Mattison JA, et al. Daily fasting improves health and survival in male mice independent of diet composition and calories. Cell Metab. 2019;29(1):221–228 e223.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trepanowski JF, Kroeger CM, Barnosky A, et al. Effects of alternate-day fasting or daily calorie restriction on body composition, fat distribution, and circulating adipokines: secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial. Clin Nutr. 2018;37(6Pt A):1871–1878.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Trepanowski JF, Kroeger CM, Barnosky A, et al. Effect of alternate-Day fasting on weight loss, weight maintenance, and cardioprotection among metabolically healthy obese adults: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2017;177(7):930–938.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar