The vascular complications of diabetes: a review of their management, pathogenesis, and prevention

References

• Centers for Disease, C. and Prevention. Blindness caused by diabetes–Massachusetts, 1987-1994. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1996;45(43):937–941.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhang X, Saaddine JB, Chou C-F, et al. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in the United States, 2005-2008. JAMA. 2010;304(6):649–656.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckman JA, Creager MA. Vascular complications of diabetes. Circ Res. 2016;118(11):1771–1785. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.115.306884
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Romeo G, Liu W-H, Asnaghi V, et al. Activation of nuclear factor-kappaB induced by diabetes and high glucose regulates a proapoptotic program in retinal pericytes. Diabetes. 2002;51(7):2241–2248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beltramo E, Porta M. Pericyte loss in diabetic retinopathy: mechanisms and consequences. Curr Med Chem. 2013;20(26):3218–3225. doi: 10.2174/09298673113209990022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nathan DM, Group DER. The diabetes control and complications trial/epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications study at 30 years: overview. Diabetes Care. 2014;37(1):9–16. doi: 10.2337/dc13-2112
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epidemiology of Diabetes I, Complications Research G. Epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications (EDIC). Design, implementation, and preliminary results of a long-term follow-up of the diabetes control and complications trial cohort. Diabetes Care. 1999;22(1):99–111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adler AI, Stevrens RJ, Manley SE, et al. Development and progression of nephropathy in type 2 diabetes: the United Kingdom prospective diabetes study (UKPDS 64). Kidney Int. 2003;63(1):225–232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ismail-Beigi F, Craven T, Banerji MA, et al. Effect of intensive treatment of hyperglycaemia on microvascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes: an analysis of the ACCORD randomised trial. Lancet. 2010;376(9739):419–430.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Wisconsin epidemiologic study of diabetic retinopathy. IX. Four-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is less than 30 years. Arch Ophthalmol. 1989;107(2):237–243.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Klein R, et al. Is blood pressure a predictor of the incidence or progression of diabetic retinopathy? Arch Intern Med. 1989;149(11):2427–2432.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Klein R. Ten year incidence ofvbgross proteinuria in patients with diabetes. Diabetes. 1995;44:916–923.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson RKW, Pettitt DJ, Bennett PH, et al. Kidney diseases. Adv Nephrol Necker Hospital. 1995;24:145–156.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kohner EM. Diabetic retinopathy. Br Med Bull. 1989;45(1):148–173. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a072309
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Group UKPDS. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. UK prospective diabetes study group. BMJ. 1998;317(7160):703–713. doi: 10.1136/bmj.317.7160.703
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holman RR, Paul SK, Bethel MA, et al. Long-term follow-up after tight control of blood pressure in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(15):1565–1576.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ACCORD Study Group and ACCORD Eye Study Group. Effects of medical therapies on retinopathy progression in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2010;363(3):233–244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mauer M, Zinman B, Gardiner R, et al. Renal and retinal effects of enalapril and losartan in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(1):40–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Diabetes A. Standards of medical care in diabetes–2013. Diabetes Care. 2013;1(Suppl 1): S11–66. 36 Suppl.
   Google Scholar
• Miljanovic B, Glynn RJ, Nathan DM, et al. A prospective study of serum lipids and risk of diabetic macular edema in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes. 2004;53(11):2883–2892.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toth PP, Simko RJ, Palli S, et al. The impact of serum lipids on risk for microangiopathy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Cardiovasc Diabetol. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2012;11(1):109.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keech A, Simes J, Barter P, et al. Effects of long-term fenofibrate therapy on cardiovascular events in 9795 people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (the FIELD study): randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2005;366(9500):1849–1861.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE. Epidemiology of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care. 1992;15(12):1875–1891. doi: 10.2337/diacare.15.12.1875
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. Association of ocular disease and mortality in a diabetic population. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999;117(11):1487–1495.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Chaturvedi N, Bandinelli S, Mangili R, et al. Microalbuminuria in type 1 diabetes: rates, risk factors and glycemic threshold. Kidney Int. 2001;60(1):219–227.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Boer IH, Rue TC, Hall YN, et al. Temporal trends in the prevalence of diabetic kidney disease in the United States. JAMA. 2011;305(24):2532–2539.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alicic RZ, Rooney MT, Tuttle KR. Diabetic kidney disease: challenges, progress, and possibilities. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017;12(12):2032–2045. doi: 10.2215/CJN.11491116
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gopalakrishnan I, Ishander SS, Daehagh P, et al. Coincident idiopathic focal segmental glomerulosclerosis collapsing variant and diabetic nephropathy in an African American homozygous for MYH9 risk variants. Hum Pathol. 2011;42(2):291–294.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toyama T, Neuen BL, Jun M, et al. Effect of SGLT2 inhibitors on cardiovascular, renal and safety outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diab Obes Metab. 2019;21(5):1237–1250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossing P, Baeres FMM, Bakris G, et al. The rationale, design and baseline data of FLOW, a kidney outcomes trial with once-weekly semaglutide in people with type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2023;38(9):2041–2051.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Waijer SW, Vart P, Cherney DZI, et al. Effect of dapagliflozin on kidney and cardiovascular outcomes by baseline KDIGO risk categories: a post hoc analysis of the DAPA-CKD trial. Diabetologia. 2022;65(7):1085–1097.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agarwal R, Filippatos G, Pitt B, et al. Cardiovascular and kidney outcomes with finerenone in patients with type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease: the FIDELITY pooled analysis. Eur Heart J. 2022;43(6):474–484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Kidney F. KDOQI clinical practice guideline for diabetes and CKD: 2012 update. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;60(5):850–886.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fassett RG, Robertson IK, Ball MJ, et al. Effect of atorvastatin on kidney function in chronic kidney disease: a randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Atherosclerosis. 2010;213(1):218–224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feldman EL, Callaghan BC, Pop-Busui R, et al. Diabetic neuropathy. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2019;5(1):41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbott, C.A.e.a.P.a.c.o.p.d.n.i.a.l.c.-b.d.p.i.t.U.K.D.c.v. 10(2011):2220–2224. doi: 10.2337/dc11-1108
   Google Scholar
• Armstrong DG, Lavery LA, Harkless LB. Validation of a diabetic wound classification system. The contribution of depth, infection, and ischemia to risk of amputation. Diabetes Care. 1998;21(5):855–859. doi: 10.2337/diacare.21.5.855
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tavakoli M, Mojaddidi M, Fadavi H, et al. Pathophysiology and treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy. Curr Pain Headache Rep. 2008;12(3):192–197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Effect of intensive therapy on the development and progression of diabetic nephropathy in the diabetes control and complications trial. The Diabetes Control And Complications (DCCT) Research Group. Kidney Int. 1995;47(6):1703–1720. doi: 10.1038/ki.1995.236
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casellini CM, Barlow PM, Rice AL, et al. A 6-month, randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled study evaluating the effects of the protein kinase C-beta inhibitor ruboxistaurin on skin microvascular blood flow and other measures of diabetic peripheral neuropathy. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(4):896–902.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boulton AJ, Vinik AI, Arezzo JC, et al. Diabetic neuropathies: a statement by the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2005;28(4):956–962.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Albers JW, Herman WH, Pop-Busui R, et al. Effect of prior intensive insulin treatment during the diabetes control and complications trial (DCCT) on peripheral neuropathy in type 1 diabetes during the Epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications (EDIC) study. Diabetes Care. 2010;33(5):1090–1096.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pop-Busui R, Low PA, Waberski BH, et al. Effects of prior intensive insulin therapy on cardiac autonomic nervous system function in type 1 diabetes mellitus: the diabetes control and complications trial/Epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications study (DCCT/EDIC). circulation. Circulation. 2009;119(22):2886–2893.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ADVANCE Collaborative Group. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(24):2560–2572.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tutuncu NB, Bayraktar M, Varli K. Reversal of defective nerve conduction with vitamin E supplementation in type 2 diabetes: a preliminary study. Diabetes Care. 1998;21(11):1915–1918. doi: 10.2337/diacare.21.11.1915
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaede P, Lund-Andersen H, Parving H-H, et al. Effect of a multifactorial intervention on mortality in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(6):580–591.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang D, Refaat M, Mohammedi K, et al. Macrovascular complications in patients with diabetes and prediabetes. Bio Med Res Int. 2017;2017:1–9. doi: 10.1155/2017/7839101
   Google Scholar
• Haffner SM, Lehto S, Rönnemaa T, et al. Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1998;339(4):229–234.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults, E. Expert Panel on Detection, E. and A. Treatment of high blood cholesterol in, executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (adult treatment Panel III). JAMA. 2001;285(19):2486–2497. doi: 10.1001/jama.285.19.2486
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bulugahapitiya U, Siyambalapitiya S, Sithole J, et al. Is diabetes a coronary risk equivalent? Systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabet Med. 2009;26(2):142–148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laakso M, Rönnemaa T, Pyörälä K, et al. Atherosclerotic vascular disease and its risk factors in non-insulin-dependent diabetic and nondiabetic subjects in Finland. Diabetes Care. 1988;11(6):449–463.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James S, Angiolillo DJ, Cornel JH, et al. Ticagrelor vs. clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes and diabetes: a substudy from the PLATelet inhibition and patient outcomes (PLATO) trial. Eur Heart J. 2010;31(24):3006–3016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thukkani AK, Agrawal K, Prince L, et al. Long-term outcomes in patients with diabetes mellitus related to prolonging clopidogrel more than 12 months after coronary stenting. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;66(10):1091–1101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young LH, Wackers FJT, Chyun DA, et al. Cardiac outcomes after screening for asymptomatic coronary artery disease in patients with type 2 diabetes: the DIAD study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2009;301(15):1547–1555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muhlestein JB, Lappé DL, Lima JAC, et al. Effect of screening for coronary artery disease using CT angiography on mortality and cardiac events in high-risk patients with diabetes: the FACTOR-64 randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014;312(21):2234–2243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang SN, Chen J-J, Huang P-S, et al. Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor prevents stroke in patients with diabetes and atrial fibrillation. J Am Heart Assoc. 2023;12(10):e027764.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poznyak AV, Litvinova L, Poggio P, et al. From Diabetes to Atherosclerosis: Potential of Metformin for Management of Cardiovascular Disease. IJMS. 2022;23(17). doi: 10.3390/ijms23179738
   Google Scholar
• Lau LH, Lew J, Borschmann K, et al. Prevalence of diabetes and its effects on stroke outcomes: a meta‐analysis and literature review. J Diabetes Investig. 2019;10(3):780–792.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mosenzon O, Cheng AY, Rabinstein AA, et al. Diabetes and stroke: what are the connections? J Stroke. 2023;25(1):26–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janghorbani M, Hu FB, Willett WC, et al. Prospective study of type 1 and type 2 diabetes and risk of stroke subtypes: the nurses. Health Study Diabetes Care. 2007;30(7):1730–1735.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boden-Albala B, Cammack S, Chong J, et al. Diabetes, fasting glucose levels, and risk of ischemic stroke and vascular events: findings from the northern Manhattan study (NOMAS). Diabetes Care. 2008;31(6):1132–1137.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Icks A, Claessen H, Morbach S, et al. Time-dependent impact of diabetes on mortality in patients with stroke: survival up to 5 years in a health insurance population cohort in Germany. Diabetes Care. 2012;35(9):1868–1875.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnold M, Mattle S, Galimanis A, et al. Impact of admission glucose and diabetes on recanalization and outcome after intra-arterial thrombolysis for ischaemic stroke. Int J Stroke. 2014;9(8):985–991.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soyoye DO, Abiodun OO, Ikem RT, et al. Diabetes and peripheral artery disease: a review. World J Diabetes. 2021;12(6):827–838. doi: 10.4239/wjd.v12.i6.827
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nehler MR, Duval S, Diao L, et al. Epidemiology of peripheral arterial disease and critical limb ischemia in an insured national population. J Vasc Surg. 2014;60(3):686–95 e2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reitz KM, Althouse AD, Forman DE, et al. MetfOrmin BenefIts lower extremities with intermittent claudication (MOBILE IC): randomized clinical trial protocol. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2023;23(1). doi: 10.1186/s12872-023-03047-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward R, Long C, Patel MR, et al. Antithrombotic therapy in peripheral artery disease: a review of the EUCLID trial results and current ongoing trials. Clin Cardiol. 2018;41(1):137–143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agarwal R, Anker SD, Filippatos G, et al. Effects of canagliflozin versus finerenone on cardiorenal outcomes: exploratory post hoc analyses from FIDELIO-DKD compared to reported CREDENCE results. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2022;37(7):1261–1269.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bethel MA, Patel RA, Merrill P, et al. Cardiovascular outcomes with glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists in patients with type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018;6(2):105–113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brouwer R, van der Peet R, Hoencamp R, et al. DIONYSIUS trial: “does increasing oxygen nurture your symptomatic ischaemic ulcer sufficiently?” study protocol for an international multicentre randomised trial. BMJ Open. 2023;13(5):e063503.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yahagi K, Kolodgie FD, Lutter C, et al. Pathology of human coronary and carotid artery atherosclerosis and vascular calcification in diabetes mellitus. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2017;37(2):191–204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jain V, Qamar A, Matsushita K, et al. Impact of diabetes on outcomes in patients hospitalized with acute myocardial infarction: insights from the atherosclerosis risk in communities study community surveillance. J Am Heart Assoc. 2023;12(10):e028923.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrie JR, Guzik TJ, Touyz RM. Diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease: clinical insights and vascular mechanisms. Can J Cardiol. 2018;34(5):575–584. doi: 10.1016/j.cjca.2017.12.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Przezak A, Bielka W, Pawlik A. Hypertension and type 2 diabetes—the novel treatment possibilities. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23(12):23(12. doi: 10.3390/ijms23126500
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Passarella P, Kiseleva TA, Valeeva FV, et al. Hypertension Management in Diabetes: 2018 Update. Diabetes Spectr. 2018;31(3):218–224.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• ACCORD Study Group. Effects of intensive blood-pressure control in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(17):1575–1585.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nazarzadeh M, Bidel Z, Canoy D, et al. Blood pressure-lowering treatment for prevention of major cardiovascular diseases in people with and without type 2 diabetes: an individual participant-level data meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2022;10(9):645–654.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sunkara N, C HA. Hypertension in diabetes and the risk of cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc Endocrinol. 2017;6(1):33–38. doi: 10.1097/XCE.0000000000000114
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ide S, Maezawa Y, Yokote K. Updates on dyslipidemia in patients with diabetes. J Diabetes Investig. 2023;14(9):1041–1044. doi: 10.1111/jdi.14042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mancini GBJ, Hegele RA, Leiter LA, et al. Dyslipidemia. Can J Diabetes. 2018;42(Suppl 1):S178–S185. doi: 10.1016/j.jcjd.2017.10.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feingold KR. Dyslipidemia in Diabetes. In: Feingold K Blackman AB, editors. et al. Endotext [internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com, Inc.; 2000. Updated 2020 Aug10cited 2023 Oct 15. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK305900/
   Google Scholar
• Rhee EJ, Kim HC, Kim JH, et al. 2018 guidelines for the management of dyslipidemia. Korean J Intern Med. 2019;34(4):723–771.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson PWF, Polonsky TS, Miedema MD, et al. Systematic review for the 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA guideline on the management of blood cholesterol: a report of the American College of cardiology/American heart association task force on clinical practice guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;73(24):3210–3227.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee YB, Kim B, Han K, et al. Combination of statin and ezetimibe versus statin monotherapy on cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes incidence among adults with impaired fasting glucose: a propensity-matched nationwide cohort study. J Lipid Atheroscler. 2021;10(3):303–312.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim JY, Choi J, Kim SG, et al. Relative contributions of statin intensity, achieved low-density lipoprotein cholesterol level, and statin therapy duration to cardiovascular risk reduction in patients with type 2 diabetes: population based cohort study. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2022;21(1):28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galicia-Garcia U, Benito-Vicente A, Jebari S, et al. Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus. IJMS. 2020;21(17):6275.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stratton IM, Adler AI, Neil HA, et al. Association of glycaemia with macrovascular and microvascular complications of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35): prospective observational study. BMJ. 2000;321(7258):405–412.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lachin JM, Nathan DM, Group DER. Understanding metabolic memory: the prolonged influence of glycemia during the diabetes control and complications trial (DCCT) on future risks of complications during the study of the Epidemiology of diabetes interventions and complications (EDIC). diabetes Care. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(10):2216–2224. doi: 10.2337/dc20-3097
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayward RA, Reaven PD, Wiitala WL, et al. Follow-up of glycemic control and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(23):2197–2206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmitt VH, Hobohm L, Sivanathan V, et al. Diabetes mellitus and its impact on mortality rate and outcome in pulmonary embolism. J Diabetes Investig. 2022;13(4):725–737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li F, Yuan L, Shao N, et al. Changes and significance of vascular endothelial injury markers in patients with diabetes mellitus and pulmonary thromboembolism. BMC Pulm Med. 2023;23(1):183.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heit JA, Leibson CL, Ashrani AA, et al. Is diabetes mellitus an independent risk factor for venous thromboembolism?: a population-based case-control study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2009;29(9):1399–1405.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu S, Tan J-S, Hu M-J, et al. The causality between diabetes and venous thromboembolism: a bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization study. Thromb Haemost. 2023;123(9):913–919.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roberts LN, Whyte MB. Re: diabetes mellitus is associated with a higher relative risk for venous thromboembolism in females than in males. Diabet Res Clin Pract. 2023;197:110556. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2023.110556
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bell EJ, Folsom AR, Lutsey PL, et al. Diabetes mellitus and venous thromboembolism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. diabetes Res Clin Pract. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2016;111:10–18. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2015.10.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall SM, Flyvbjerg A. Prevention and early detection of vascular complications of diabetes. BMJ. 2006;333(7566):475–480. doi: 10.1136/bmj.38922.650521.80
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heart Protection Study Collaborative G. MRC/BHF heart Protection study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360(9326):7–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colhoun HM, Betteridge DJ, Durrington PN, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with atorvastatin in type 2 diabetes in the Collaborative atorvastatin diabetes study (CARDS): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2004;364(9435):685–696.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Massi-Benedetti M, Board C-A. The cost of diabetes type II in Europe: the CODE-2 study. Diabetologia. 2002;45(7):S1–4. doi: 10.1007/s00125-002-0860-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar