339
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Prediction in treatment outcomes in multiple sclerosis: challenges and recent advances

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 1187-1198 | Received 08 Jul 2021, Accepted 23 Sep 2021, Published online: 20 Oct 2021

References

  • Filippi M, Bar-Or A, Piehl F, et al. Multiple sclerosis. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2018;4(1):43. Epub 2018/ 11/10. PubMed PMID: 30410033.
  • Magyari M, Sorensen PS Comorbidity in multiple sclerosis. Front Neurol. 2020;11:851. Epub 2020/ 09/26. PubMed PMID: 32973654; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC7473304.
  • Messmer Uccelli M, Specchia C, Battaglia MA, et al.Factors that influence the employment status of people with multiple sclerosis: a multi-national study.J Neurol.2009;256(12):1989–1996. Epub 2009/ 07/08 PubMed PMID: 19582536.
  • Hartung DM Health economics of disease-modifying therapy for multiple sclerosis in the United States. Ther Adv Neurol Disord. 2021;14:1756286420987031. Epub 2021/ 03/02. PubMed PMID: 33643441; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC7894590.
  • University of California SFMSET, Cree BAC, Hollenbach JA, Bove R, et al. Silent progression in disease activity-free relapsing multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 2019;85(5):653–666. Epub 2019/ 03/10. PubMed PMID: 30851128; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6518998.
  • Kappos L, Wolinsky JS, Giovannoni G, et al. Contribution of relapse-independent progression vs relapse-associated worsening to overall confirmed disability accumulation in typical relapsing multiple sclerosis in a pooled analysis of 2 randomized clinical trials. JAMA Neurol. 2020;77(9):1132. Epub 2020/ 06/09. PubMed PMID: 32511687.
  • Baecher-Allan C, Kaskow BJ, Weiner HL.Multiple sclerosis: mechanisms and immunotherapy.Neuron.2018;97(4):742–768. Epub 2018/ 02/23 PubMed PMID: 29470968.
  • Lublin FD, Coetzee T, Cohen JA, et al.International advisory committee on clinical trials in MS. The 2013 clinical course descriptors for multiple sclerosis: a clarification.Neurology.2020;94(24):1088–1092. Epub 2020/ 05/31 PubMed PMID: 32471886; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC7455332.
  • Brownlee WJ, Miller DH.Clinically isolated syndromes and the relationship to multiple sclerosis.J Clin Neurosci.2014;21(12):2065–2071. Epub 2014/ 07/17 PubMed PMID: 25027666.
  • Kappos L, Freedman MS, Polman CH, et al. Effect of early versus delayed interferon beta-1b treatment on disability after a first clinical event suggestive of multiple sclerosis: a 3-year follow-up analysis of the BENEFIT study. Lancet. 2007;370(9585):389–397. Epub 2007/ 08/07. PubMed PMID: 17679016.
  • Jacobs LD, Beck RW, Simon JH, et al. Intramuscular interferon beta-1a therapy initiated during a first demyelinating event in multiple sclerosis. CHAMPS Study Group. N Engl J Med. 2000;343(13):898–904. Epub 2000/ 09/28. PubMed PMID: 11006365.
  • Comi G, De Stefano N, Freedman MS, et al. Comparison of two dosing frequencies of subcutaneous interferon beta-1a in patients with a first clinical demyelinating event suggestive of multiple sclerosis (REFLEX): a phase 3 randomised controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2012;11(1):33–41. Epub 2011/ 12/08. PubMed PMID: 22146409.
  • Comi G, Martinelli V, Rodegher M, et al. Effect of glatiramer acetate on conversion to clinically definite multiple sclerosis in patients with clinically isolated syndrome (PreCISe study): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2009;374(9700):1503–1511. Epub 2009/ 10/10. PubMed PMID: 19815268.
  • Merkel B, Butzkueven H, Traboulsee AL, et al.Timing of high-efficacy therapy in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: a systematic review.Autoimmun Rev.2017;16(6):658–665. Epub 2017/ 04/22 PubMed PMID: 28428119.
  • Hutchinson M, Kappos L, Calabresi PA, et al. The efficacy of natalizumab in patients with relapsing multiple sclerosis: subgroup analyses of AFFIRM and SENTINEL. J Neurol. 2009;256(3):405–415. Epub 2009/ 03/25. PubMed PMID: 19308305.
  • Agius M, Meng X, Chin P, et al.Fingolimod therapy in early multiple sclerosis: an efficacy analysis of the TRANSFORMS and FREEDOMS studies by time since first symptom.CNS Neurosci Ther.2014;20(5):446–451. Epub 2014/ 04/02 PubMed PMID: 24684973; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6493139.
  • Ontaneda D, Tallantyre EC, Raza PC, et al. Determining the effectiveness of early intensive versus escalation approaches for the treatment of relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: the DELIVER-MS study protocol. Contemp Clin Trials. 2020;95:106009. PubMed PMID: 32320842 Epub 2020/ 04/23.
  • Traditional versus early aggressive therapy for multiple sclerosis trial (TREAT-MS) ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03500328. [cited 8 Jun 2021]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03500328
  • Okuda DT, Mowry EM, Beheshtian A, et al. Incidental MRI anomalies suggestive of multiple sclerosis: the radiologically isolated syndrome. Neurology. 2009;72(9):800–805. Epub 2008/ 12/17. PubMed PMID: 19073949.
  • Tienari PJ, Salonen O, Wikstrom J, et al.Familial multiple sclerosis: MRI findings in clinically affected and unaffected siblings.J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry.1992;55(10):883–886. Epub 1992/ 10/01 PubMed PMID: 1431951; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC1015181.
  • Gabelic T, Ramasamy DP, Weinstock-Guttman B, et al. Prevalence of radiologically isolated syndrome and white matter signal abnormalities in healthy relatives of patients with multiple sclerosis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2014;35(1):106–112. Epub 2013/ 07/28. PubMed PMID: 23886745; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC7966501.
  • Okuda DT, Siva A, Kantarci O, et al. Radiologically isolated syndrome: 5-year risk for an initial clinical event. PLoS One. 2014;9(3):e90509. Epub 2014/ 03/07. PubMed PMID: 24598783; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3943959.
  • Randomized, double-blinded study of treatment: teriflunomide,in radiologically isolated syndrome (TERIS) ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03122652. [cited 8 Jun 2021]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03122652.
  • Assessment of Tecfidera® in Radiologically Isolated Syndrome (RIS) (ARISE) ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02739542. [cited 8 Jun 2021]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02739542.
  • Bonenfant J, Bajeux E, Deburghgraeve V, et al.Can we stop immunomodulatory treatments in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis?Eur J Neurol.2017;24(2):237–244. Epub 2016/ 10/19 PubMed PMID: 27753181.
  • Hartung HP, Meuth SG, Miller DM, et al. Stopping disease-modifying therapy in relapsing and progressive multiple sclerosis. Curr Opin Neurol. 2021; Publish Ahead of Print. Epub 2021/ 05/15. https://doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0000000000000960. PubMed PMID: 33990101.
  • Hua LH, Harris H, Conway D, et al. Changes in patient-reported outcomes between continuers and discontinuers of disease modifying therapy in patients with multiple sclerosis over age 60. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2019;30:252–256. Epub 2019/ 03/10. PubMed PMID: 30851638.
  • Kaminsky AL, Omorou AY, Soudant M, et al. Discontinuation of disease-modifying treatments for multiple sclerosis in patients aged over 50 with disease Inactivity. J Neurol. 2020;267(12):3518–3527. Epub 2020/ 07/04. PubMed PMID: 32617659.
  • Discontinuation of disease modifying therapies (DMTs) in multiple sclerosis (MS) (DISCOMS) ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03073603. [cited 8 Jun 2021]. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03073603.
  • University of California SFMSET, Cree BA, Gourraud PA, Oksenberg JR, et al. Long-term evolution of multiple sclerosis disability in the treatment era. Ann Neurol. 2016;80(4):499–510. Epub 2016/ 07/28. PubMed PMID: 27464262; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5105678.
  • Barkhof F.MRI in multiple sclerosis: correlation with expanded disability status scale (EDSS).Mult Scler.1999;5(4):283–286. Epub 1999/ 09/01 PubMed PMID: 10467389.
  • Barkhof F.The clinico-radiological paradox in multiple sclerosis revisited.Curr Opin Neurol.2002;15(3):239–245. Epub 2002/ 06/05 PubMed PMID: 12045719.
  • Sorensen PS, Sellebjerg F, Hartung HP, et al.The apparently milder course of multiple sclerosis: changes in the diagnostic criteria, therapy and natural history.Brain.2020;143(9):2637–2652. Epub 2020/ 07/28 PubMed PMID: 32710096.
  • Thompson AJ, Banwell BL, Barkhof F, et al. Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: 2017 revisions of the McDonald criteria. Lancet Neurol. 2018;17(2):162–173. Epub 2017/ 12/26. PubMed PMID: 29275977.
  • Koch-Henriksen N, Thygesen LC, Stenager E, et al.Incidence of MS has increased markedly over six decades in Denmark particularly with late onset and in women.Neurology.2018;90(22):e1954–e63. Epub 2018/ 05/04 PubMed PMID: 29720546.
  • Koch-Henriksen N, Sorensen PS.The changing demographic pattern of multiple sclerosis epidemiology.Lancet Neurol.2010;9(5):520–532. Epub 2010/ 04/20 PubMed PMID: 20398859.
  • Wallin MT, Culpepper WJ, Campbell JD, et al. The prevalence of MS in the United States: a population-based estimate using health claims data. Neurology. 2019;92(10):e1029–e40. Epub 2019/ 02/17. PubMed PMID: 30770430; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6442006.
  • Manouchehrinia A, Tench CR, Maxted J, et al.Tobacco smoking and disability progression in multiple sclerosis: united Kingdom cohort study.Brain.2013;136(7):2298–2304. Epub 2013/ 06/13 PubMed PMID: 23757766; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3692034.
  • Petersen ER, Oturai AB, Koch-Henriksen N, et al. Smoking affects the interferon beta treatment response in multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2018;90(7):e593–e600. Epub 2018/ 01/19. PubMed PMID: 29343473.
  • Petersen ER, Sondergaard HB, Laursen JH, et al. Smoking is associated with increased disease activity during natalizumab treatment in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2019;25(9):1298–1305. Epub 2018/ 08/03. PubMed PMID: 30070595.
  • Caldito NG, Saidha S, Sotirchos ES, et al. Brain and retinal atrophy in African-Americans versus Caucasian-Americans with multiple sclerosis: a longitudinal study. Brain. 2018;141(11):3115–3129. Epub 2018/ 10/13. PubMed PMID: 30312381; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6202573.
  • Moog TM, McCreary M, Stanley T, et al. African Americans experience disproportionate neurodegenerative changes in the medulla and upper cervical spinal cord in early multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2020;45:102429. PubMed PMID: 32805478 Epub 2020/ 08/18.
  • Kaufman MD, Johnson SK, Moyer D, et al.Multiple sclerosis: severity and progression rate in African Americans compared with whites.Am J Phys Med Rehabil.2003;82(8):582–590. Epub 2003/ 07/23 PubMed PMID: 12872014.
  • Kurtzke JF.Rating neurologic impairment in multiple sclerosis: an expanded disability status scale (EDSS).Neurology.1983;33(11):1444–1452. Epub 1983/ 11/01 PubMed PMID: 6685237.
  • Goodkin DE, Cookfair D, Wende K, et al. Inter- and intrarater scoring agreement using grades 1.0 to 3.5 of the Kurtzke Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS). Multiple Sclerosis Collaborative Research Group. Neurology. 1992;42(4):859–863. Epub 1992/ 04/01. PubMed PMID: 1565242.
  • Inojosa H, Schriefer D, Ziemssen T.Clinical outcome measures in multiple sclerosis: a review.Autoimmun Rev.2020;19(5):102512. Epub 2020/ 03/17 PubMed PMID: 32173519.
  • Meyer-Moock S, Feng YS, Maeurer M, et al.Systematic literature review and validity evaluation of the Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) and the Multiple Sclerosis Functional Composite (MSFC) in patients with multiple sclerosis.BMC Neurol.2014;14(1):58. Epub 2014/ 03/29 PubMed PMID: 24666846; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3986942.
  • Goldman MD, LaRocca NG, Rudick RA, et al. Evaluation of multiple sclerosis disability outcome measures using pooled clinical trial data. Neurology. 2019;93(21):e1921–e31. Epub 2019/ 10/24. PubMed PMID: 31641014; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6885577.
  • Rudick RA, Miller D, Bethoux F, et al. The Multiple Sclerosis Performance Test (MSPT): an iPad-based disability assessment tool. J Vis Exp. 2014; (88):e51318. Epub 2014/ 07/22. https://doi.org/10.3791/51318. PubMed PMID: 25046650; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4209820.
  • Rhodes JK, Schindler D, Rao SM, et al. Multiple Sclerosis Performance Test: technical Development and Usability. Adv Ther. 2019;36(7):1741–1755. Epub 2019/ 05/06. PubMed PMID: 31054035; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6824297.
  • Maillart E, Labauge P, Cohen M, et al. MSCopilot, a new multiple sclerosis self-assessment digital solution: results of a comparative study versus standard tests. Eur J Neurol. 2020;27(3):429–436. Epub 2019/ 09/21. PubMed PMID: 31538396.
  • Montalban X, Graves J, Midaglia L, et al. A smartphone sensor-based digital outcome assessment of multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2021; 13524585211028561. Epub 2021/ 07/15. https://doi.org/10.1177/13524585211028561. PubMed PMID: 34259588.
  • Mouelhi Y, Jouve E, Castelli C, et al.How is the minimal clinically important difference established in health-related quality of life instruments? Review of anchors and methods.Health Qual Life Outcomes.2020;18(1):136. Epub 2020/ 05/14 PubMed PMID: 32398083; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC7218583.
  • Khurana V, Sharma H, Afroz N, et al.Patient-reported outcomes in multiple sclerosis: a systematic comparison of available measures.Eur J Neurol.2017;24(9):1099–1107. Epub 2017/ 07/12 PubMed PMID: 28695634.
  • Miller DH, Grossman RI, Reingold SC, et al.The role of magnetic resonance techniques in understanding and managing multiple sclerosis.Brain.1998;121(1):3–24. Epub 1998/04/29 PubMed PMID: 9549485.
  • van Munster CE, Uitdehaag BM.Outcome Measures in Clinical Trials for Multiple Sclerosis.CNS Drugs.2017;31(3):217–236. Epub 2017/ 02/12 PubMed PMID: 28185158; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5336539.
  • Tur C, Moccia M, Barkhof F, et al. Assessing treatment outcomes in multiple sclerosis trials and in the clinical setting. Nat Rev Neurol. 2018;14(2):75–93. Epub 2018/ 01/13. PubMed PMID: 29326424.
  • Zhao Y, Healy BC, Rotstein D, et al. Exploration of machine learning techniques in predicting multiple sclerosis disease course. PLoS One. 2017;12(4):e0174866. Epub 2017/ 04/06. PubMed PMID: 28379999; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5381810.
  • Brownlee WJ, Altmann DR, Prados F, et al. Early imaging predictors of long-term outcomes in relapse-onset multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2019;142(8):2276–2287. Epub 2019/ 07/26. PubMed PMID: 31342055.
  • Minneboo A, Barkhof F, Polman CH, et al.Infratentorial lesions predict long-term disability in patients with initial findings suggestive of multiple sclerosis.Arch Neurol.2004;61(2):217–221. Epub 2004/ 02/18 PubMed PMID: 14967769.
  • Tintore M, Rovira A, Arrambide G, et al. Brainstem lesions in clinically isolated syndromes. Neurology. 2010;75(21):1933–1938. Epub 2010/ 11/26. PubMed PMID: 21098409.
  • Fisniku LK, Brex PA, Altmann DR, et al. Disability and T2 MRI lesions: a 20-year follow-up of patients with relapse onset of multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2008;131(3):808–817. Epub 2008/ 02/01. PubMed PMID: 18234696.
  • Brodksy, M, Nazarian, S, Orengo-Nania, S, et al. Optic Neuritis Study Group. Multiple sclerosis risk after optic neuritis: final optic neuritis treatment trial follow-up. Arch Neurol. 2008; 65(6):727–732. Epub 2008/ 06/11. Epub 2008/ 06/11.
  • Tintore M, Rovira A, Rio J, et al. Defining high, medium and low impact prognostic factors for developing multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2015;138(7):1863–1874. Epub 2015/ 04/23. PubMed PMID: 25902415.
  • Swanton JK, Fernando KT, Dalton CM, et al. Early MRI in optic neuritis: the risk for clinically definite multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2010;16(2):156–165. Epub 2010/ 01/21. PubMed PMID: 20086028.
  • Kuhle J, Disanto G, Dobson R, et al. Conversion from clinically isolated syndrome to multiple sclerosis: a large multicentre study. Mult Scler. 2015;21(8):1013–1024. Epub 2015/ 02/15. PubMed PMID: 25680984.
  • Filippi M, Paty DW, Kappos L, et al. Correlations between changes in disability and T2-weighted brain MRI activity in multiple sclerosis: a follow-up study. Neurology. 1995;45(2):255–260. Epub 1995/ 02/01. PubMed PMID: 7854522.
  • Uher T, Vaneckova M, Sobisek L, et al. Combining clinical and magnetic resonance imaging markers enhances prediction of 12-year disability in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2017;23(1):51–61. Epub 2016/ 04/08. PubMed PMID: 27053635.
  • Li DK, Held U, Petkau J, et al. MRI T2 lesion burden in multiple sclerosis: a plateauing relationship with clinical disability. Neurology. 2006;66(9):1384–1389. Epub 2006/ 05/10. PubMed PMID: 16682671.
  • Popescu V, Agosta F, Hulst HE, et al. Brain atrophy and lesion load predict long term disability in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2013;84(10):1082–1091. Epub 2013/ 03/26. PubMed PMID: 23524331.
  • Brex PA, Ciccarelli O, O’Riordan JI, et al.A longitudinal study of abnormalities on MRI and disability from multiple sclerosis.N Engl J Med.2002;346(3):158–164. Epub 2002/ 01/18 PubMed PMID: 11796849.
  • Bruck W, Bitsch A, Kolenda H, et al.Inflammatory central nervous system demyelination: correlation of magnetic resonance imaging findings with lesion pathology.Ann Neurol.1997;42(5):783–793. Epub 1997/ 12/10 PubMed PMID: 9392578.
  • Cotton F, Weiner HL, Jolesz FA, et al.MRI contrast uptake in new lesions in relapsing-remitting MS followed at weekly intervals.Neurology.2003;60(4):640–646. Epub 2003/ 02/26 PubMed PMID: 12601106.
  • Rovira A, Swanton J, Tintore M, et al. A single, early magnetic resonance imaging study in the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol. 2009;66(5):587–592. Epub 2009/ 05/13. PubMed PMID: 19433658.
  • Paty DW, Li DK.Interferon beta-1b is effective in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. II. MRI analysis results of a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. UBC MS/MRI Study Group and the IFNB Multiple Sclerosis Study Group.Neurology.1993;43(4):662–667. Epub 1993/ 04/01 PubMed PMID: 8469319.
  • Li DK, Paty DW.Magnetic resonance imaging results of the PRISMS trial: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of interferon-beta1a in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Prevention of Relapses and Disability by Interferon-beta1a Subcutaneously in Multiple Sclerosis.Ann Neurol.1999;46(2):197–206. Epub 1999/ 08/12 PubMed PMID: 10443885.
  • Simon JH, Jacobs LD, Campion M, et al. Magnetic resonance studies of intramuscular interferon beta-1a for relapsing multiple sclerosis. The Multiple Sclerosis Collaborative Research Group. Ann Neurol. 1998;43(1):79–87. Epub 1998/ 02/05. PubMed PMID: 9450771.
  • Sormani MP, Bruzzi P.MRI lesions as a surrogate for relapses in multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis of randomised trials.Lancet Neurol.2013;12(7):669–676. Epub 2013/ 06/08 PubMed PMID: 23743084.
  • Sormani MP, Freedman MS, Aldridge J, et al. MAGNIMS score predicts long-term clinical disease activity-free status and confirmed disability progression in patients treated with subcutaneous interferon beta-1a. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2021;49:102790. Epub 2021/ 02/12. PubMed PMID: 33571946.
  • Perez-Miralles F, Sastre-Garriga J, Tintore M, et al. Clinical impact of early brain atrophy in clinically isolated syndromes. Mult Scler. 2013;19(14):1878–1886. Epub 2013/ 05/09. PubMed PMID: 23652215.
  • De Stefano N, Arnold DL.Towards a better understanding of pseudoatrophy in the brain of multiple sclerosis patients.Mult Scler.2015;21(6):675–676. Epub 2015/ 01/28 PubMed PMID: 25623248.
  • Miller DH, Barkhof F, Frank JA, et al.Measurement of atrophy in multiple sclerosis: pathological basis, methodological aspects and clinical relevance.Brain.2002;125(8):1676–1695. Epub 2002/ 07/24 PubMed PMID: 12135961.
  • Sormani MP, Arnold DL, De Stefano N.Treatment effect on brain atrophy correlates with treatment effect on disability in multiple sclerosis.Ann Neurol.2014;75(1):43–49. Epub 2013/ 09/06 PubMed PMID: 24006277.
  • Lavorgna L, Bonavita S, Ippolito D, et al. Clinical and magnetic resonance imaging predictors of disease progression in multiple sclerosis: a nine-year follow-up study. Mult Scler. 2014;20(2):220–226. Epub 2013/ 07/11. PubMed PMID: 23838177.
  • Simmons SB, Schippling S, Giovannoni G, et al.Predicting disability worsening in relapsing and progressive multiple sclerosis.Curr Opin Neurol.2021;34(3):312–321. Epub 2021/ 03/13 PubMed PMID: 33709974.
  • Radue EW, Barkhof F, Kappos L, et al. Correlation between brain volume loss and clinical and MRI outcomes in multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2015;84(8):784–793. Epub 2015/ 01/30. PubMed PMID: 25632085; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4339126.
  • Eshaghi A, Marinescu RV, Young AL, et al. Progression of regional grey matter atrophy in multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2018;141(6):1665–1677. Epub 2018/ 05/10. PubMed PMID: 29741648; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5995197.
  • Jacobsen CO, Farbu E.MRI evaluation of grey matter atrophy and disease course in multiple sclerosis: an overview of current knowledge.Acta Neurol Scand Suppl.2014;129(198):32–36. Epub 2014/ 03/05 PubMed PMID: 24588504.
  • Calabrese M, Poretto V, Favaretto A, et al. Cortical lesion load associates with progression of disability in multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2012;135(Pt10):2952–2961. Epub 2012/ 10/16. PubMed PMID: 23065788.
  • Scalfari A, Romualdi C, Nicholas RS, et al. The cortical damage, early relapses, and onset of the progressive phase in multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2018;90(24):e2107–e18. Epub 2018/ 05/18. PubMed PMID: 29769373.
  • Amato MP, Portaccio E, Goretti B, et al. Association of neocortical volume changes with cognitive deterioration in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol. 2007;64(8):1157–1161. Epub 2007/ 08/19. PubMed PMID: 17698706.
  • Morgen K, Sammer G, Courtney SM, et al. Evidence for a direct association between cortical atrophy and cognitive impairment in relapsing-remitting MS. Neuroimage. 2006;30(3):891–898. Epub 2005/ 12/20. PubMed PMID: 16360321.
  • Benedict RH, Ramasamy D, Munschauer F, et al.Memory impairment in multiple sclerosis: correlation with deep grey matter and mesial temporal atrophy.J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry.2009;80(2):201–206. Epub 2008/ 10/03 PubMed PMID: 18829629.
  • Till C, Ghassemi R, Aubert-Broche B, et al. MRI correlates of cognitive impairment in childhood-onset multiple sclerosis. Neuropsychology. 2011;25(3):319–332. Epub 2011/ 05/04. PubMed PMID: 21534686.
  • Schoonheim MM, Meijer KA, Geurts JJ Network collapse and cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis. Front Neurol. 2015;6:82. Epub 2015/ 05/01. PubMed PMID: 25926813; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4396388.
  • Batista S, Zivadinov R, Hoogs M, et al. Basal ganglia, thalamus and neocortical atrophy predicting slowed cognitive processing in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol. 2012;259(1):139–146. Epub 2011/ 07/02. PubMed PMID: 21720932.
  • Rinaldi F, Perini P, Atzori M, et al. Disease-modifying drugs reduce cortical lesion accumulation and atrophy progression in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: results from a 48-month extension study. Mult Scler Int. 2015;2015:369348. Epub 2015/ 03/25. PubMed PMID: 25802758; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4353660.
  • Saini A, Bach K, Poliakov I, et al.Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Spinal Cord Lesions in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis in Saskatchewan, Canada.Int J MS Care.2021;23(2):47–52. Epub 2021/ 04/22 PubMed PMID: 33880079; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC8047683.
  • Zecca C, Disanto G, Sormani MP, et al. Relevance of asymptomatic spinal MRI lesions in patients with multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2016;22(6):782–791. Epub 2015/ 10/16. PubMed PMID: 26459149.
  • Swanton JK, Fernando KT, Dalton CM, et al. Early MRI in optic neuritis: the risk for disability. Neurology. 2009;72(6):542–550. Epub 2009/ 02/11. PubMed PMID: 19204264.
  • Stankiewicz JM, Neema M, Alsop DC, et al. Spinal cord lesions and clinical status in multiple sclerosis: a 1.5 T and 3 T MRI study. J Neurol Sci. 2009;279(1–2):99–105. Epub 2009/ 01/31. PubMed PMID: 19178916; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC2679653.
  • Amezcua L, Lerner A, Ledezma K, et al. Spinal cord lesions and disability in Hispanics with multiple sclerosis. J Neurol. 2013;260(11):2770–2776. Epub 2013/ 08/06. PubMed PMID: 23912723; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3816004.
  • Biberacher V, Boucard CC, Schmidt P, et al. Atrophy and structural variability of the upper cervical cord in early multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2015;21(7):875–884. Epub 2014/ 08/21. PubMed PMID: 25139943.
  • Zeydan B, Gu X, Atkinson EJ, et al. Cervical spinal cord atrophy: an early marker of progressive MS onset. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2018;5(2):e435. Epub 2018/ 02/13. PubMed PMID: 29435472; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5795903.
  • Lukas C, Knol DL, Sombekke MH, et al. Cervical spinal cord volume loss is related to clinical disability progression in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2015;86(4):410–418. Epub 2014/ 06/29. PubMed PMID: 24973341.
  • Kearney H, Altmann DR, Samson RS, et al. Cervical cord lesion load is associated with disability independently from atrophy in MS. Neurology. 2015;84(4):367–373. Epub 2014/ 12/30. PubMed PMID: 25540312.
  • Liu C, Edwards S, Gong Q, et al.Three dimensional MRI estimates of brain and spinal cord atrophy in multiple sclerosis.J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry.1999;66(3):323–330. Epub 1999/ 03/20 PubMed PMID: 10084530; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC1736263.
  • Brex PA, Leary SM, O’Riordan JI, et al. Measurement of spinal cord area in clinically isolated syndromes suggestive of multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001;70(4):544–547. Epub 2001/ 03/20. PubMed PMID: 11254786; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC1737291.
  • Rashid W, Davies GR, Chard DT, et al. Increasing cord atrophy in early relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: a 3 year study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2006;77(1):51–55. Epub 2005/ 12/20. PubMed PMID: 16361592; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC2117413.
  • Tsagkas C, Magon S, Gaetano L, et al. Spinal cord volume loss: a marker of disease progression in multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2018;91(4):e349–e58. Epub 2018/ 06/29. PubMed PMID: 29950437.
  • Ruggieri S, Petracca M, Miller A, et al. Association of deep gray matter damage with cortical and spinal cord degeneration in primary progressive multiple sclerosis. JAMA Neurol. 2015;72(12):1466–1474. Epub 2015/ 10/13. PubMed PMID: 26457955.
  • Lukas C, Sombekke MH, Bellenberg B, et al. Relevance of spinal cord abnormalities to clinical disability in multiple sclerosis: MR imaging findings in a large cohort of patients. Radiology. 2013;269(2):542–552. Epub 2013/ 06/06. PubMed PMID: 23737540.
  • Daams M, Weiler F, Steenwijk MD, et al. Mean upper cervical cord area (MUCCA) measurement in long-standing multiple sclerosis: relation to brain findings and clinical disability. Mult Scler. 2014;20(14):1860–1865. Epub 2014/ 05/09. PubMed PMID: 24812042.
  • Kearney H, Rocca MA, Valsasina P, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging correlates of physical disability in relapse onset multiple sclerosis of long disease duration. Mult Scler. 2014;20(1):72–80. Epub 2013/ 07/03. PubMed PMID: 23812283; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4107776.
  • Dupuy SL, Khalid F, Healy BC, et al. The effect of intramuscular interferon beta-1a on spinal cord volume in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. BMC Medical Imaging. 2016;16(1):56. Epub 2016/ 10/08. PubMed PMID: 27716096; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5053209.
  • Singhal T, Tauhid S, Hurwitz S, et al.The Effect of Glatiramer Acetate on Spinal Cord Volume in Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis.J Neuroimaging.2017;27(1):33–36. Epub 2016/ 07/29 PubMed PMID: 27466943; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5248648.
  • Kutzelnigg A, Lucchinetti CF, Stadelmann C, et al. Cortical demyelination and diffuse white matter injury in multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2005;128(11):2705–2712. Epub 2005/ 10/19. PubMed PMID: 16230320.
  • Frischer JM, Weigand SD, Guo Y, et al. Clinical and pathological insights into the dynamic nature of the white matter multiple sclerosis plaque. Ann Neurol. 2015;78(5):710–721. Epub 2015/ 08/05. PubMed PMID: 26239536; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4623970.
  • Correale J, Gaitan MI, Ysrraelit MC, et al.Progressive multiple sclerosis: from pathogenic mechanisms to treatment.Brain.2017;140(3):527–546. Epub 2016/ 11/01 PubMed PMID: 27794524.
  • Elliott C, Wolinsky JS, Hauser SL, et al. Slowly expanding/evolving lesions as a magnetic resonance imaging marker of chronic active multiple sclerosis lesions. Mult Scler. 2019;25(14):1915–1925. Epub 2018/ 12/20. PubMed PMID: 30566027; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6876256.
  • Absinta M, Sati P, Fechner A, et al.Identification of chronic active multiple sclerosis lesions on 3T MRI.AJNR Am J Neuroradiol.2018;39(7):1233–1238. Epub 2018/ 05/05 PubMed PMID: 29724768; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6039266.
  • Elliott C, Belachew S, Wolinsky JS, et al. Chronic white matter lesion activity predicts clinical progression in primary progressive multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2019;142(9):2787–2799. Epub 2019/ 09/10. PubMed PMID: 31497864; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6736181.
  • Petzold A, De Boer JF, Schippling S, et al. Optical coherence tomography in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9(9):921–932. Epub 2010/ 08/21. PubMed PMID: 20723847.
  • London A, Benhar I, Schwartz M.The retina as a window to the brain-from eye research to CNS disorders.Nat Rev Neurol.2013;9(1):44–53. Epub 2012/ 11/21 PubMed PMID: 23165340.
  • London F, Zephir H, Drumez E, et al. Optical coherence tomography: a window to the optic nerve in clinically isolated syndrome. Brain. 2019;142(4):903–915. Epub 2019/ 03/09. PubMed PMID: 30847470.
  • Berek K, Bsteh G, Auer M, et al. Kappa-Free Light Chains in CSF Predict Early Multiple Sclerosis Disease Activity. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2021;8(4):e1005. Epub 20210528. PubMed PMID: 34049994; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC8168046.
  • Kuhle J, Nourbakhsh B, Grant D, et al. Serum neurofilament is associated with progression of brain atrophy and disability in early MS. Neurology. 2017;88(9):826–831. Epub 2017/ 02/06. PubMed PMID: 28148632; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5331872.
  • Disanto G, Barro C, Benkert P, et al. Serum Neurofilament light: a biomarker of neuronal damage in multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 2017;81(6):857–870. Epub 2017/ 05/18. PubMed PMID: 28512753; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5519945.
  • Novakova L, Zetterberg H, Sundstrom P, et al. Monitoring disease activity in multiple sclerosis using serum neurofilament light protein. Neurology. 2017;89(22):2230–2237. Epub 2017/ 10/29. PubMed PMID: 29079686; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5705244.
  • Akgun K, Kretschmann N, Haase R, et al. Profiling individual clinical responses by high-frequency serum neurofilament assessment in MS. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2019;6(3):e555. Epub 2019/ 05/24. PubMed PMID: 31119188; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6501638.
  • Bjornevik K, Munger KL, Cortese M, et al. Serum neurofilament light chain levels in patients with presymptomatic multiple sclerosis. JAMA Neurol. 2020;77(1):58–64. Epub 2019/ 09/14. PubMed PMID: 31515562; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6745051.
  • Thebault S, Booth RA, Rush CA, et al. Serum neurofilament light chain measurement in MS: hurdles to clinical translation. Front Neurosci. 2021;15:654942. Epub 2021/ 04/13. PubMed PMID: 33841093; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC8027110.
  • Groen K, Lechner-Scott J, Pohl D, et al. Can serum glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) solve the longstanding problem of diagnosis and monitoring progressive multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2021;50:102931. Epub 2021/ 05/01. PubMed PMID: 33926692.
  • Abdelhak A, Hottenrott T, Morenas-Rodriguez E, et al. Glial Activation Markers in CSF and Serum From Patients With Primary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis: potential of Serum GFAP as Disease Severity Marker? Front Neurol. 2019;10:280. PubMed PMID: 30972011; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6443875 Epub 2019/ 04/12.
  • Rotstein DL, Healy BC, Malik MT, et al.Evaluation of no evidence of disease activity in a 7-year longitudinal multiple sclerosis cohort.JAMA Neurol.2015;72(2):152–158. Epub 2014/ 12/23 PubMed PMID: 25531931.
  • Saraste M, Bezukladova S, Matilainen M, et al. Increased serum glial fibrillary acidic protein associates with microstructural white matter damage in multiple sclerosis: GFAP and DTI. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2021;50:102810. PubMed PMID: 33556656 Epub 2021/ 02/09.
  • van de Stolpe A, Holtzer L, van Ooijen H, et al.Enabling precision medicine by unravelling disease pathophysiology: quantifying signal transduction pathway activity across cell and tissue types.Sci Rep.2019;9(1):1603. Epub 2019/ 02/09 PubMed PMID: 30733525; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6367506.
  • Maggi P, Fartaria MJ, Jorge J, et al. CVSnet: a machine learning approach for automated central vein sign assessment in multiple sclerosis. NMR Biomed. 2020;33(5):e4283. Epub 2020/ 03/04. PubMed PMID: 32125737; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC7754184.
  • Waldman A, Ness J, Pohl D, et al. Pediatric multiple sclerosis: clinical features and outcome. Neurology. 2016;87(9Suppl 2):S74–81. Epub 2016/ 08/31. PubMed PMID: 27572865.
  • Malpas CB, Manouchehrinia A, Sharmin S, et al. Early clinical markers of aggressive multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2020;143(5):1400–1413. Epub 2020/ 05/10. PubMed PMID: 32386427.
  • Leray E, Moreau T, Fromont A, et al.Epidemiology of multiple sclerosis.Rev Neurol (Paris).2016;172(1):3–13. Epub 2016/ 01/01 PubMed PMID: 26718593.
  • Tomassini V, Fanelli F, Prosperini L, et al.Predicting the profile of increasing disability in multiple sclerosis.Mult Scler.2019;25(9):1306–1315. Epub 2018/ 08/03 PubMed PMID: 30070597; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6681428.
  • Kalincik T, Vivek V, Jokubaitis V, et al. Sex as a determinant of relapse incidence and progressive course of multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2013;136(12):3609–3617. Epub 2013/ 10/22. PubMed PMID: 24142147.
  • Shirani A, Zhao Y, Kingwell E, et al.Temporal trends of disability progression in multiple sclerosis: findings from British Columbia, Canada (1975-2009).Mult Scler.2012;18(4):442–450. Epub 2011/ 09/29 PubMed PMID: 21952097.
  • Bove RM, Healy B, Augustine A, et al.Effect of gender on late-onset multiple sclerosis.Mult Scler.2012;18(10):1472–1479. Epub 2012/ 03/03 PubMed PMID: 22383227.
  • Khan O, Williams MJ, Amezcua L, et al.Multiple sclerosis in US minority populations: clinical practice insights.Neurol Clin Pract.2015;5(2):132–142. Epub 2015/ 07/03 PubMed PMID: 26137421; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4404283.
  • Confavreux C, Vukusic S, Adeleine P.Early clinical predictors and progression of irreversible disability in multiple sclerosis: an amnesic process.Brain.2003;126(4):770–782. Epub 2003/ 03/05 PubMed PMID: 12615637.
  • Ternes AM, Clough M, Foletta P, et al.Executive control deficits correlate with reduced frontal white matter volume in multiple sclerosis.J Clin Exp Neuropsychol.2019;41(7):723–729. Epub 2019/ 05/21 PubMed PMID: 31106663.
  • Eijlers AJC, Van Geest Q, Dekker I, et al. Predicting cognitive decline in multiple sclerosis: a 5-year follow-up study. Brain. 2018;141(9):2605–2618. Epub 2018/ 09/01. PubMed PMID: 30169585.
  • Tam RC, Traboulsee A, Riddehough A, et al.Improving the clinical correlation of multiple sclerosis black hole volume change by paired-scan analysis.Neuroimage Clin.2012;1(1):29–36. Epub 2012/ 01/01 PubMed PMID: 24179734; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3757731.
  • Absinta M, Sati P, Masuzzo F, et al. Association of chronic active multiple sclerosis lesions with disability in vivo. JAMA Neurol. 2019;76(12):1474–1483. Epub 2019/ 08/14. PubMed PMID: 31403674; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6692692.
  • Eshaghi A, Prados F, Brownlee WJ, et al. Deep gray matter volume loss drives disability worsening in multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 2018;83(2):210–222. Epub 2018/ 01/14. PubMed PMID: 29331092; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5838522.
  • Chu R, Kim G, Tauhid S, et al.Whole brain and deep gray matter atrophy detection over 5 years with 3T MRI in multiple sclerosis using a variety of automated segmentation pipelines.PLoS One.2018;13(11):e0206939. Epub 2018/ 11/09 PubMed PMID: 30408094; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6224096.
  • Eijlers AJC, Dekker I, Steenwijk MD, et al. Cortical atrophy accelerates as cognitive decline worsens in multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2019;93(14):e1348–e59. Epub 2019/ 09/06. PubMed PMID: 31484713.
  • Azevedo CJ, Cen SY, Khadka S, et al. Thalamic atrophy in multiple sclerosis: a magnetic resonance imaging marker of neurodegeneration throughout disease. Ann Neurol. 2018;83(2):223–234. Epub 2018/ 01/13. PubMed PMID: 29328531; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC6317847.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.