Methods to assess free radicals and oxidative stress in biological systems

References

• Agarwal , S. and Sohal , R. S. 1995 . Differential oxidative damage to mitochondrial proteins during aging . Mech. Ageing Dev. , 85 : 55 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Augusto , O. , Weingrill , C. L. V. , Schreier , S. and Amemiya , H. 1986 . Hydroxyl radical formation as a result of the interaction between primaquine and reduced pyridine nucleotides . Arch. Biochem. Biophys. , 244 : 147 – 155 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aust , S. D. , Chignell , C. F. , Bray , T. M. , Kalyanaraman , B. and Mason , R. P. 1993 . Contemporary issues in toxicology. Free Radicals in Toxicology . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 120 : 168 – 178 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Awad , J. A. , Roberts , L. J. , Burk , R. F. and Morrow , J. D. 1996 . Isoprostanes‐prostaglandin‐like compounds formed in vivo indendend of cyclooxygenase: use as clinical indicators of oxidant damage . Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. , 25 : 409 – 427 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berk , A. , Rosenbauer , H. , Mancini , V. , Vemmer , H. , Schaarmann , G. and Flachowsky , G. 1998 . Effect of various vitamin E supply sources to fattening pigs on pork and bacon quality depending on time of storage . Z. Ernährungswiss. , 37 : 171 – 177 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bors , W. , Michel , G. and Stettmaier , K. 1997 . Antioxidant effects of flavonoids . Biofactors , 6 : 399 – 402 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckley , D. J. , Morrissey , P. A. and Gray , J. I. 1995 . Influence of dietary vitamin E on the oxidative stability and quality of pig meat . J. Anim. Sci. , 73 : 3122 – 3130 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buettner , G. R. 1987 . Spin trapping: ESR parameters of spin adducts . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 3 : 259 – 303 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burkitt , M. J. and Mason , R. P. 1991 . Direct evidence for in vivo hydroxyl‐radical generation in experimental iron overload: an ESR spin‐trapping investigation . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 88 : 8440 – 8444 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buss , H. , Chan , T. P. , Sluis , K. B. , Domingan , N. M. and Winterbourn , C. C. 1997 . Protein carbonyl measurement by a sensitive ELISA method . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 23 : 361 – 366 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , Y. , Zheng , R. , Jia , Z. and Ju , Y. 1990 . Flavonoids as Superoxide scavengers and antioxidants . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 9 : 19 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cossins , E. , Lee , R. and Packer , L. 1998 . ESR studies of vitamin C regeneration, order of reactivity of natural source phytochemical preparations . Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. , 45 : 583 – 597 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cova , D. , De Angelis , L. , Monti , E. and Piccini , F. 1992 . Subcellular distribution of two spin trapping agents in rat heart: Possible explanation for their different protective effect against doxorubicin‐ induced cardiotoxicity . Free Rad. Res. Commun. , 15 : 353 – 360 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Da vies , K. J. 1995 . Oxidative stress: the paradox of aerobic life . Biochem. Soc. Sym. , 61 : 1 – 31 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dizdaroglu , M. 1985 . Formation of an 8‐hydroxyguanine moiety in deoxyribonucleic acid on gamma‐irradiation in aqueous solution . Biochem. , 24 : 4476 – 4481 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Draper , H. H. , Squires , E. J. , Mahmoodi , H. , Wu , J. , Agarwal , S. and Hadley , M. 1993 . A comparative evaluation of thiobarbituric acid methods for the determination of malondialdehyde in biological materials . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 15 : 353 – 363 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eder , K. and Kirchgessner , M. 1998 . The effect of dietary vitamin E supply and a moderately oxidized oil on activities of hepatic lipogenic enzymes in rats . Lipids , 33 : 277 – 283 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellington , S. P. , Strauss , K. E. and Rosen , G. M. 1988 . “ Spin trapping of free radicals in whole cells, isolated organs and in vivo ” . In Cellular Antioxidant Defense Mechanism , Edited by: Chow , C. K. 41 – 57 . Boca Raton, Florida : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• Erhola , M. , Toyokuni , S. , Okada , K. , Tanaka , T. , Jiai , H. , Ochi , H. , Uchida , K. , Osawa , T. , Nieminen , M. M. , Alho , H. and Kellokumpu‐Lehtine , P. 1997 . Biomarker evidence of DNA oxidation in lung cancer patients: association of urinary 8‐hydroxy‐2'‐deoxyguanosine excretion with radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and response to treatment . FEBS Letters. , 409 : 287 – 291 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finkelstein , E. , Rosen , G. M. and Rauckmann , G. J. 1980 . Spin trapping of Superoxide and hydroxyl radical: practical aspects . Arch. Biochem. Biophys. , 200 : 1 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finkelstein , E. , Rosen , G. M. and Rauckman , E. J. 1982 . Production of hydroxyl radical by decomposition of Superoxide spin trapped adducts . Mol. Pharmacol. , 21 : 262 – 265 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flachowsky , G. , Richter , G. H. , Wendemuth , M. , Mockel , P. , Graf , H. , Jahreis , G. and Lubbe , F. 1994 . Effect of rapeseed in beef cattle feeding on fatty acid composition, vitamin E content and oxidative stability of body fat . Z. Ernährungswiss. , 33 : 277 – 285 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Flachowsky , G. , Schaarmann , G. and Sünder , A. 1997 . Bedarfsübersteigende Vitamin‐E‐Gaben in der Fütterung von Nutztieren . Übers. Tieremährg. , 25 : 87 – 136 .
   Google Scholar
• Flohe , L. , Brigelius‐Flohe , R. , Saliou , C , Traber , M. G. and Packer , L. 1997 . Redox regulation of NF‐ kappa B activation . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 11 : 1115 – 1126 .
   Google Scholar
• Florence , T. M. 1991 . “ The role of free radicals in cancer and aging ” . In Trace Elements, Micronutrients and Free Radicals , Edited by: Dreosti , I. E. 171 – 198 . Totowa, New Jersey : Humana Press .
   Google Scholar
• Floyd , R. A. , West , M. S. , Eneff , K. L. , Schneider , J. E. , Wong , P. K. , Tingey , D. T. and Hofsett , W. E. 1990 . Conditions influencing yield and analysis of 8‐hydroxy‐2'‐deoxy‐guanosine in oxidatively damaged DNA . Anal. Biochem. , 118 : 155 – 158 .
   Google Scholar
• Fraga , C. G. , Shigenaga , M. K. , Park , J. E. , Degan , P. and Ames , B. N. 1990 . Oxidative damage to DNA during aging: 8‐hydroxy‐2'‐deoxyguanosine in rat organ DNA and urine . Proc. Soc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 87 : 4533 – 4537 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuhrmann , H. , Balthazary , S. T. and Sallman , H. P. 1994 . Bioefficiency of different tocopherols in chicken as assessed by haemolysis test and microsomal pentane production . Br. J. Nutr. , 71 : 605 – 614 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halliwell , B. and Dizdaroglu , M. 1992 . The measurement of oxidative damage to DNA by HPLC and GC/MS techniques . Free Radical. Res. Commun. , 16 : 75 – 87 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halliwell , B. and Chiroco , S. 1993 . Lipid peroxidation: its mechanism, measurement and significance . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 57 : 715 – 725 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartell , M. G. , Borzone , G. , Clanton , T. L. and Berliner , L. J. 1994 . Detection of free radicals in blood by electron spin resonance in a model of respiratory failure in the rat . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 17 : 467 – 472 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hattori , Y. , Nishigori , C , Tanaka , T. , Uchida , K. , Nikaido , O. , Osawa , T. , Hiai , H. , Imamur , S. and Toyokuni , S. 1997 . 8‐hydroxy‐2'‐deoxyguanosine is increased in epidermal cells of hairless mice after chronic ultraviolet B exposure . J. Invest. Dermatol. , 107 : 733 – 737 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Höhler , D. and Marquardt , R. R. 1996 . Influence of vitamins E and C on the toxic effects of ochratoxin A and T‐2 toxin in chicks . Poult. Sci. , 75 : 1508 – 1515 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Höhler , D. , Marquardt , R. R. , Mclntosh , A. R. and Xiao , H. 1996 . Free radical generation as induced by ochratoxin A and its analogs in bacteria (Bacillus brevis) . J. Biol. Chem. , 271 : 27388 – 27394 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Höhler , D. , Marquardt , R. R. , Mclntosh , A. R. and Hatch , G. M. 1997 . Induction of free radicals in hepatocytes, mitochondria and microsomes of rats by ochratoxin A and its analogs . Biochim. Biophys. Acta. , 1357 : 225 – 233 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janzen , E. G. and Haire , D. L. 1990 . Two decades of spin trapping . Adv. Free Radical Chem. , 1 : 253 – 295 .
   Google Scholar
• Kasai , H. and Nishimura , S. 1984 . Hydroxylation of deoxyguanosine at the C‐8 position by ascorbic acid and other reducing agents . Nucleic Acids Res. , 24 : 2137 – 2145 .
   Google Scholar
• Kasai , H. , Hayami , H. , Yamaizum , Z. , Saito , H. and Nishimura , S. 1984 . Detection and identification of mutagens and carcinogens as their adducts with guanosine derivates . Nucleic Acids Res. , 24 : 2127 – 2136 .
   Google Scholar
• Keller , R. J. , Halmes , N. C. , Hinson , J. A. and Pumford , N. R. 1993 . Immunochemical detection of oxidized proteins . Chem. Res. Toxicol. , 6 : 430 – 433 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khan , J. , Brennand , D. M. , Bradley , N. , Gao , B. , Bruckdorfer , R. and Jacobs , M. 1998 . 3‐nitrotyrosine in the proteins of human plasma determined by an ELISA method . Biochem. J. , 330 : 795 – 801 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohlmüller , D. and Kochen , W. 1993 . Is n‐pentane really an index of lipid peroxidation in humans and animals? A methodological reevaluation . Anal. Biochem. , 210 : 268 – 276 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kristal , B. S. and Yu , B. P. 1992 . An emerging hypothesis: Synergistic induction of aging by free radicals and maillard reactions . J. Gerontol. , 47 : 107 – 114 .
   Google Scholar
• Kubow , S. , Janzen , E. G. and Bray , T. M. 1984 . Spin‐trapping of free radicals formed during in vitro and in vivo metabolism of 3‐methylindole. / . Biol. Chem. , 259 : 4447 – 4451 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kubow , S. 1992 . Routes of formation and toxic consequences of lipid oxidation products in foods . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 12 : 63 – 81 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine , R. , Williams , J. A. , Stadtman , E. R. and Shacter , E. 1994 . Carbonyl assay for determination of oxidatively modified proteins . Methods Enzymol. , 233 : 346 – 357 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zindahl , T. 1993 . Instability and decay of the primary structure of DNA . Nature , 362 : 709 – 715 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynch , S. M. , Morrow , J. D. , Roberts , L. J. and Frei , B. 1994 . Formation of non‐cyclooxygenase‐ derived prostanoids (F2‐isoprostanes): in plasma and low density lipoprotein exposed to oxidative stress in vitro . J. Clin. Invest. , 93 : 998 – 104 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Machlin , L. J. and Bendich , A. 1987 . Free radical tissue damage: protective role of antioxidant nutrients . FASEB J. , 1 : 441 – 445 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCay , P. B. , Lai , E. K. , Poyer , J. L. , DuBose , C. M. and Janzen , E. G. 1984 . Oxygen‐ and carbon‐centered free radical formation during carbon tetrachloride metabolism . J. Biol. Chem. , 259 : 2135 – 2143 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKelvey‐Martin , V. J. , Green , M. H. , Schmezer , P. , Pool‐Zobel , B. I. , De Meo , M. P. and Collins , A. 1993 . The single cell gel electrophoresis assay (comet assay): a European review . Mutat. Res. , 288 : 47 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mergner , G. W. , Weglicki , W. B. and Kramer , J. H. 1991 . Postischemic free radical production in the venous blood of the regionally ischemic swine heart: Effect of desferroxamine . Circulation , 84 : 2079 – 2090 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mizuno , M. and Packer , L. 1994 . Effects of alpha‐lipoic acid and dihydrolipoic acid on expression of proto‐oncogene c‐fos . Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. , 200 : 1136 – 1142 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moller , H. and Hofer , T. 1997 . [32P]ATP mediates formation of 8‐hydroxy‐2'‐deoxyguanosine from 2'‐ deoxyguanosine, a possible problem in the 32P‐postlabelling assay . Carcinogenesis. , 18 : 2415 – 2419 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakamura , A. and Goto , S. 1996 . Analysis of protein carbonyls with 2,4‐dinitrophenyl hydrazine and its antibodies by immunoblot in two‐dimensional gel electrophoresis . J. Biochem. , 119 : 768 – 774 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noda , Y. , Anzai , K. , Mori , A. , Kohno , M. , Shinmei , M. and Packer , L. 1997 . Hydroxyl and Superoxide anion radical scavenging activities of natural source antioxidants using the computerized JES‐FR30 ESR spectrometer system . Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. , 42 : 35 – 44 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Noroozi , M. , Angerson , W. J. and Lean , M. E. J. 1998 . Effect of flavonoids and vitamin C on oxidative DNA damage to human lymphocytes . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 67 : 1210 – 1218 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okamoto , K. , Toyokuni , S. , Uchida , K. , Ogawa , O. , Takenewa , J. , Kakehi , Y. , Kinoshita , H. , Hattori‐Nakakuki , Y. , Hiai , H. and Yoshida , O. 1994 . Formation of 8‐hydroxy‐2'‐deoxyguanosine and 4‐ hydroxy‐2‐nonenal‐modified proteins in human renal‐cell carcinoma . Int. J. Cancer , 15 : 825 – 829 .
   Google Scholar
• Oliver , C. N. , Levine , R. L. and Stadtman , E. R. 1987 . A role of mixed‐function oxidation reactions in the accumulation of altered enzyme forms during aging . J.A.G.S. , 35 : 947 – 956 .
   Google Scholar
• O'Neil , I. C. A. , Halliwell , B. , van der Vliet , A. , Davis , P. A. , Packer , L. , Tritschler , H. , Strohman , W. J. , Rieland , T. , Cross , C. E. and Reznick , A. Z. 1994 . Aldehyde‐induced protein modifications in human plasma: protection by glutathione and dihydrolipoic acid . J. Lab. Clin. Med. , 124 : 359 – 370 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orr , W. C. and Sohal , R. S. 1994 . Extension of life‐span by overexpression of Superoxide dismutase and catalase in drosophilla melanogaster . Science , 263 : 1128 – 1130 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Packer , L. 1991 . Protective role of vitamin E in biological systems . Am. J. Clin. Nutr. , 53 : 1050 – 1055 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Packer , L. 1992 . Interactions among antioxidants in health and disease: vitamin E and its redox cycle . Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. , 200 : 271 – 276 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Packer , L. 1998 . Alpha‐lipoic acid: a metabolic antioxidant which regulates NF‐kappa B signal transduction and protects against oxidative injury . Drug Metab. Rev. , 30 : 245 – 275 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Packer , L. , Witt , E. H. and Tritschler , H. J. 1995 . Alpha‐lipoic acid as a biological antioxidant . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 19 : 227 – 250 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Packer , L. , Rimbach , G. and Virgili , F. 1999 . Antioxidant activity and biological properties of a procyanidins rich extract from the pine (Pinus maritima) bark . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , (in press)
   Google Scholar
• Podmore , I. D. , Griffith , H. R. , Herbert , K. E. , Mistry , N. , Mistry , P. and Lunec , J. 1998 . Vitamin C exhibits pro‐oxidant properties . Nature , 392 : 559
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pou , S. , Ramos , C. L. , Gladwell , T. , Renks , E. , Centra , M. , Young , D. , Cohen , M. S. and Rosen , G. M. 1994 . A kinetic approach to the selection of a sensitive spin trapping system for the detection of hydroxyl radical . Anal. Biochem. , 217 : 76 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poyer , J. L. , McCay , P. B. , Weddle , C. C. and Downs , P. E. 1981 . In vivo spin trapping of radicals formed during halothane metabolism . Biochem. Pharmacol. , 30 : 1517 – 1519 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reznick , A. and Packer , L. 1994 . Oxidative damage to proteins: spectrophotometric method for carbonyl assay . Methods Emymol. , 233 : 357 – 363 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice‐Evans , C. and Burton , R. 1993 . Free‐radical lipid interactions and their pathological consequences . Prog. Lipid Res. , 32 : 71 – 110 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rimbach , G. and Pallauf , J. 1998 . Phytic acid inhibits free radical formation in vitro but does not affect liver oxidant or antioxidant status in growing rats . J. Nutr. , 128 : 1950 – 1955 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rimbach , G. and Pallauf , J. 1999 . Effect of dietary phytate on magnesium bioavailabilty and liver oxidant status in growing rats . Food Chem. Toxicol. , 37 : 37 – 45 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rimbach , G. , Markant , A. , Most , E. and Pallauf , J. 1997 . Liver and colon oxidant status in growing rats fed increasing levels of dietary iron . J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol. , 11 : 99 – 104 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robak , J. and Gryglewski , R. J. 1988 . Flavonoids as scavengers of Superoxide anions . Biochem. Pharmacol. , 37 : 837 – 841 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts , L. J. and Morrow , J. D. 1994 . Isoprostanes, novel markers of endogenous lipid peroxidation and potential mediators of oxidant injury . Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. , 744 : 237 – 242 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy , S. , Sen , C. K. , Kobuchi , H. and Packer , L. 1998 . Antioxidant regulation of phorbol ester‐induced adhesion of human Jurkat T‐cells to endothelial cells . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 25 : 229 – 241 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saran , M. , Michel , C. and Bors , W. 1990 . Reaction of NO with Superoxide . Free Radic. Res. Commun. , 10 : 221 – 226 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaefer , D. M. , Liu , Q. , Faustmann , C. and Yin , M. C. 1995 . Supranutritional administration of vitamins E and C improves oxidative stability of beef . J. Nutr. , 125 : 1792 – 1798 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schreck , R. , Zorbas , H. , Winnacker , E. L. and Bauerle , P. A. 1990 . The NF‐kappa B transcription factor induces DNA bending which is modulated by its 65‐kD subunit . Nucleic Acids Res. , 25 : 6479 – 6502 .
   Google Scholar
• Sen , C. K. and Packer , L. 1996 . Antioxidant and redox regulation of gene transcription . FASEB J. , 10 : 709 – 729 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sevanian , A. and Hochstein , P. 1985 . Mechanism and consequences of lipid peroxidation in biological systems . Ann. Rev. Nutr. , 5 : 369 – 390 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shara , M. A. , Dickson , P. H. , Bagschi , D. and Stohs , S. J. 1992 . Excretion of formaldehyde, malon‐ dialdehyde, acetaldehyde and acetone in the urine of rats in response to 2,3,7,8‐tetrachlorodibenzo‐ p‐dioxin, paraquat, endrin and carbon tetrachloride . J. Chormatogr. , 576 : 221 – 233 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shigenaga , M. K. , Gimeno , C. J. and Ames , B. 1989 . Urinary 8‐hydroxy‐2'deoxyguanosine as a biological marker of in vivo oxidative DNA damage . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. , 86 : 9697 – 9701 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sies , H. 1986 . Biochemistry of oxidative stress . Angew. Chem. , 25 : 1058 – 1071 .
   Google Scholar
• Sies , H. 1993 . Strategies of antioxidant defense . Eur. J. Biochem. , 215 : 213 – 219 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Slater , T. F. 1984 . Free‐radical mechanisms in tissue injury . Biochem. J. , 222 : 1 – 15 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , C. V. and Anderson , R. E. 1987 . Methods for determination of lipid peroxidation in biological samples . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 3 : 341 – 344 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Starke‐Reed , P. E. and Oliver , C. N. 1989 . Protein oxidation and proteolysis during aging and oxidative stress . Arch. Biochem. Biophys. , 275 : 559 – 567 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tappet , A. L. and Dillard , C. J. 1981 . In vivo lipid peroxidation: measurement via exhaled pentane and protection by vitamin E . Fed. Proc. , 40 : 174 – 178 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Teixeira , A. J. , Ferreirai , R. M. , van Dijk , W. J. , van de Werken , G. and de Jong , A. P. 1995 . Analysis of 8‐hydroxy‐2'‐deoxyguanosine in rat urine and liver DNA by stable isotope dilution gas chromatography/mass spectrometry . Anal. Biochem. , 226 : 307 – 319 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thornalley , P. 1986 . Theory and biological applications of the electron spin resonance technique of spin trapping . Life Chem. Rep. , 4 : 57 – 11 .
   Google Scholar
• Tice , R. R. and Strauss , G. H. 1995 . The single cell gel electrophoresis/comet assay: a potential tool for detecting radiation‐induced DNA damage in humans . Stem Cells. , 13 : 207 – 214 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toyokuni , S. , Tanaka , T. , Hattor , Y. , Nishiyama , Y. , Yoshida , A. , Uchida , K. , Hiai , H. , Ochi , H. and Osawa , T. 1997 . Quantitative immunohistochemical determination of 8‐hydroxy‐2'‐deoxyguanosine by a monoclonal antibody N45: its application to ferric nitrilotriacetate induced renal carcinogenesis model . Lab. Invest. , 76 : 365 – 374 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virgili , F. , Santini , M. P. , Canali , R. , Polokowska , R. R. , Haake , A. and Perozzi , G. 1998a . Bcl‐2 overexpression in the HaCaT cell Une is associated with a different membrane fatty acid composition and sensitivity to oxidative stress . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 24 : 93 – 101 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virgili , F. , Kim , D. and Packer , L. 1998b . Procyanidins extracted from pine bark protect alpha‐ tocopherol in ECV 304 endothelial cells challenged by activated RAW264.7 macrophages: roles of nitric oxide and peroxynitrite . FEBS Lett. , 431 : 315 – 318 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Virgili , F. , Kobuchi , H. and Packer , L. 1998c . Procyanidins extracted from Pinus maritima (Pycnogenol): scavengers of free radical species and modulators of nitrogen monoxide metabolism in activated murine RAW 264.7 macrophages . Free Radic. Biol. Med. , 24 : 1120 – 1129 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar