Improving access to eye care in low and middle-income countries – challenges, opportunities, and the way forward

References

• Bourne R, Steinmetz JD, Flaxman S, et al. Trends in prevalence of blindness and distance and near vision impairment over 30 years: an analysis for the global burden of disease study. Lancet Glob Health. 2021;9(2):e130–e143. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30425-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• du Toit R, Palagyi A, Ramke J, et al. The impact of reduced distance and near vision on the quality of life of adults in Timor-Leste. Ophthalmol. 2010;117(12):2308–2314. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2010.03.041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finger RP, Kupitz DG, Holz FG, et al. The impact of the severity of vision loss on vision-related quality of life in India: an evaluation of the IND-VFQ-33. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011;52(9):6081–6088. doi: 10.1167/iovs.11-7388
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nutheti R, Shamanna BR, Nirmalan PK, et al. Impact of impaired vision and eye disease on quality of life in Andhra Pradesh. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47(11):4742–4748. doi: 10.1167/iovs.06-0020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shamanna BR, Dandona L, Rao GN Economic burden of blindness in India. Indian J Ophthalmol, 46(3), 169–172 (1998).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wong B, Singh K, Khanna RK, et al. The economic and social costs of visual impairment and blindness in India. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2022;70(10):3470–3475. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_502_22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burton MJ, Ramke J, Marques AP, et al. The Lancet Global Health Commission on global eye health: vision beyond 2020. Lancet Glob Health. 2021;9(4):e489–e551. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30488-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinmetz JD, Bourne RRA, Briant PS, et al. Causes of blindness and vision impairment in 2020 and trends over 30 years, and prevalence of avoidable blindness in relation to VISION 2020: the right to sight: an analysis for the global burden of disease study. Lancet Glob Health. 2021;9(2):e144–e160. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30489-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. Universal eye health: a global action plan 2014-2019. 2013; p. 28.
   Google Scholar
• McCormick I, Mactaggart I, Resnikoff S, et al. Eye health indicators for universal health coverage: results of a global expert prioritisation process. Br J Ophthalmol. 2022;106(7):893–901. doi: 10.1136/bjophthalmol-2020-318481
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stringhini S, Bovet P. Socioeconomic status and risk factors for non-communicable diseases in low-income and lower-middle-income countries. Lancet Glob Health. 2017;5(3):e230–e231. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30054-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sommer I, Griebler U, Mahlknecht P, et al. Socioeconomic inequalities in non-communicable diseases and their risk factors: an overview of systematic reviews. BMC Public Health, 15, 914 (2015). 1 doi: 10.1186/s12889-015-2227-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhutta ZA, Lassi ZS, Pariyo G, et al. Global experience of community health workers for delivery of health related millennium development goals: a systematic review, country case studies, and recommendations for integration into national health systems. Global Health Workforce Alliance, 1(249), 61 (2010).
   Google Scholar
• Bourne R, Steinmetz JD, Flaxman S, et al. Trends in prevalence of blindness and distance and near vision impairment over 30 years: an analysis for the global burden of disease study. Lancet Glob Health, (2020).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Y, Lou L, Cao J, et al. Socio-economic disparity in global burden of near vision loss: an analysis for 2017 with time trends since 1990. Acta Ophthalmol. 2020;98(2):e138–e143. doi: 10.1111/aos.14198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cabieses B, Bird P. Glossary of access to health care and related concepts for low- and middle-income countries (LMICs): a critical review of international literature. Int J Health Serv. 2014;44(4):845–861. doi: 10.2190/HS.44.4.j
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniels N Equity of access to health care: some conceptual and ethical issues. Milbank Mem Fund Q Health Soc, 60(1), 51–81 (1982). doi: 10.2307/3349700
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Whitehead M. The concepts and principles of equity and health. Int J Health Serv. 1992;22(3):429–445. doi: 10.2190/986L-LHQ6-2VTE-YRRN
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penchansky R, Thomas JW. The concept of access: definition and relationship to consumer satisfaction. Med care. 1981;19(2):127–140. doi: 10.1097/00005650-198102000-00001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levesque JF, Harris MF, Russell G Patient-centred access to health care: conceptualising access at the interface of health systems and populations. Int J Equity Health, 12, 18 (2013). doi: 10.1186/1475-9276-12-18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO. WHA73.4. Integrated people-centred eye care, including preventable vision impairment and blindness. Geneva: WHO; 2020
   Google Scholar
• Ervin AM, Solomon SD, Shoge RY. Access to eye care in the United States: evidence-informed decision-making is key to improving access for underserved populations. Ophthalmol. 2022;129(10):1079–1080. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2022.07.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prothero L, Cartwright M, Lorencatto F, et al. Barriers and enablers to diabetic retinopathy screening: a cross-sectional survey of young adults with type 1 and type 2 diabetes in the UK. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care, 10(6) (2022). e002971 doi: 10.1136/bmjdrc-2022-002971
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Allen Z, Dogba MJ, Brent MH, et al. Barriers to and enablers of attendance at diabetic retinopathy screening experienced by immigrants to Canada from multiple cultural and linguistic minority groups. Diabet Med, 38(4), e14429 (2021). doi: 10.1111/dme.14429
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jose J, Thomas J, Bhakat P, et al. Awareness, knowledge, and barriers to low vision services among eye care practitioners. Oman J Ophthalmol. 2016;9(1):37–43. doi: 10.4103/0974-620X.176099
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Curran K, Lohfeld L, Congdon N, et al. Ophthalmologists’ and patients’ perspectives on treatments for diabetic retinopathy and maculopathy in Vietnam: a descriptive qualitative study. BMJ Open. 2022;12(7):e055061. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-055061
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amritanand A, Jasper S, Paul P, et al. Facilitating factors in overcoming barriers to cataract surgical services among the bilaterally cataract blind in Southern India: a cross-sectional study. Indian J Ophthalmol, 66(7), 963–968 (2018). doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_216_18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newman-Casey PA, Robin AL, Blachley T, et al. The most common barriers to glaucoma medication adherence: a cross-sectional survey. Ophthalmol. 2015;122(7):1308–1316. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2015.03.026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Venkataswamy PG, Billiant G Social and economic barriers to cataract surgery in rural south India: a preliminary report. J Vis Impair Blind, 75(10), 405–408 (1981). doi: 10.1177/0145482X8107501005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kovai V, Prasadarao BV, Paudel P, et al. Reasons for refusing cataract surgery in illiterate individuals in a tribal area of Andhra Pradesh, India. Ophthal Epidemiol, 21(3), 144–152 (2014). doi: 10.3109/09286586.2014.903980
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li Z, Song Z, Wu S, et al. Outcomes and barriers to uptake of cataract surgery in rural northern China: the Heilongjiang eye study. Ophthal Epidemiol, 21(3), 161–168 (2014). doi: 10.3109/09286586.2014.903499
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senjam SS, Vashist P, Gupta N, et al. Prevalence of visual impairment due to uncorrected refractive error: results from Delhi-rapid assessment of visual impairment study. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2016;64(5):387–390. doi: 10.4103/0301-4738.185614
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muhit M, Minto H, Parvin A, et al. Prevalence of refractive error, presbyopia, and unmet need of spectacle coverage in a northern district of Bangladesh: rapid assessment of refractive error study. Ophthal Epidemiol, 25(2), 126–132 (2018). doi: 10.1080/09286586.2017.1370119
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tenkir A, Solomon B, Deribew A Glaucoma awareness among people attending ophthalmic outreach services in Southwestern Ethiopia. BMC Ophthalmol, 10, 17 (2010). 1 doi: 10.1186/1471-2415-10-17
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kumar S, Kumar G, Velu S, et al. Patient and provider perspectives on barriers to screening for diabetic retinopathy: an exploratory study from southern India. BMJ Open. 2020;10(12):e037277. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-037277
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyeremeh S, Mashige KP. Availability of low vision services and barriers to their provision and uptake in Ghana: practitioners’ perspectives. Afr Health Sci. 2021;21(2):896–903. doi: 10.4314/ahs.v21i2.51
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmamula S, Kumbham TR, Modepalli SB, et al. Barriers to uptake of referral eye care services among the elderly in residential care: the Hyderabad Ocular Morbidity in Elderly Study (HOMES). Br J Ophthalmol, (2022). doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-15943-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khanna RC, Kim S, Giridhar P, et al. Barriers to uptake of referral services from secondary care to tertiary care and its associated factors in L V Prasad eye Institute network in Southern India: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2018;8(7):e020687. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-020687
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carpenter CJ A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of health belief model variables in predicting behavior. Health Commun, 25(8), 661–669 (2010). doi: 10.1080/10410236.2010.521906
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang XJ, Jhanji V, Leung CK, et al. Barriers for poor cataract surgery uptake among patients with operable cataract in a program of outreach screening and low-cost surgery in rural China. Ophthal Epidemiol, 21(3), 153–160 (2014). doi: 10.3109/09286586.2014.903981
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nishad N, Hewage SA, Arulmoly K, et al. Barriers for cataract treatment among elderly in Sri Lanka. Curr Gerontol Geriatr Res, 2019, 6262456 (2019).doi: 10.1155/2019/6262456
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Batlle JF, Lansingh VC, Silva JC, et al. The cataract situation in Latin America: barriers to cataract surgery. Am J Ophthalmol, 158(2), 242–250 e241 (2014). doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2014.04.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bizuneh ZY, Gessesse GW, Anbesse DH. Barriers to cataract surgery utilization among cataract patients attending surgical outreach sites in Ethiopia: a dual center study. Clin Optom. 2021;13:263–269. doi: 10.2147/OPTO.S324267
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dean WH, Patel D, Sherwin JC, et al. Follow-up survey of cataract surgical coverage and barriers to cataract surgery at Nkhoma, Malawi. Ophthal Epidemiol, 18(4), 171–178 (2011). doi: 10.3109/09286586.2011.590918
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Syed A, Polack S, Eusebio C, et al. Predictors of attendance and barriers to cataract surgery in Kenya, Bangladesh and the Philippines. Disabil Rehabil, 35(19), 1660–1667 (2013). doi: 10.3109/09638288.2012.748843
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmamula S, Yelagondula VK, Kumbham TR, et al. Population-based assessment of barriers for uptake of eye care services among elderly people: findings from rapid assessment of visual impairment studies from Telangana, India. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2022;70(5):1749–1753. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_1991_21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang Z, Jin G, Li Z, et al. Global disease burden of uncorrected refractive error among adolescents from 1990 to 2019. BMC Public Health. 2021;21(1):1975. doi: 10.1186/s12889-021-12055-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmamula S, Keeffe JE, Raman U, et al. Population-based cross-sectional study of barriers to utilisation of refraction services in South India: rapid assessment of refractive errors (RARE) study. BMJ Open. 2011;1(1):e000172. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2011-000172
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu Q, He W, Murthy GV, et al. Presbyopia and near-vision impairment in rural northern China. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 52(5), 2300–2305 (2011). doi: 10.1167/iovs.10-6569
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casas Luque L, Naidoo K, Chan VF, et al. Prevalence of refractive error, presbyopia, and spectacle coverage in Bogota, Colombia: a rapid assessment of refractive error. Optom Vis Sci, 96(8), 579–586 (2019). doi: 10.1097/OPX.0000000000001409
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naidoo KS, Chinanayi FS, Ramson P, et al. Rapid assessment of refractive error in the eThekwini municipality of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa. Clin Exp Optom. 2016;99(4):360–365. doi:10.1111/cxo.12377
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mashayo ER, Chan VF, Ramson P, et al. Prevalence of refractive error, presbyopia and spectacle coverage in Kahama District, Tanzania: a rapid assessment of refractive error. Clin Exp Optom 98(1), 58–64 (2015). doi: 10.1111/cxo.12207
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leske MC, Heijl A, Hussein M, et al. Factors for glaucoma progression and the effect of treatment: the early manifest glaucoma trial. Arch Ophthalmol, 121(1), 48–56 (2003). doi: 10.1001/archopht.121.1.48
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Killeen OJ, Pillai MR, Udayakumar B, et al. Understanding barriers to glaucoma treatment adherence among participants in South India. Ophthal Epidemiol, 27(3), 200–208 (2020). doi: 10.1080/09286586.2019.1708121
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilmour-White JA, Shah P, Cross V, et al. Glaucoma awareness and access to healthcare: perceptions among glaucoma patients in Tanzania. Postgrad Med J, 91(1077), 373–378 (2015). doi: 10.1136/postgradmedj-2014-133094
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piyasena M, Murthy GVS, Yip JLY, et al. A qualitative study on barriers and enablers to uptake of diabetic retinopathy screening by people with diabetes in the western province of Sri Lanka. Trop Med Health, 47, 34 (2019). doi: 10.1186/s41182-019-0160-y
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sarika G, Venugopal D, Sailaja MVS, et al. Barriers and enablers to low vision care services in a tertiary eye care hospital: a mixed method study. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2019;67(4):536–540. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_1215_18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu X, Xu Y, Lu L, et al. Patients’ perspectives on the barriers to referral after telescreening for diabetic retinopathy in communities. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care, 8(1) (2020). e000970. doi: 10.1136/bmjdrc-2019-000970
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sethu S, Lawrenson JG, Kekunnaya R, et al. Barriers and enablers to access childhood cataract services across India. A qualitative study using the Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) of behaviour change. PLoS One, 16(12), e0261308 (2021). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0261308
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulze Schwering M, Finger RP, Barrows J, et al. Barriers to uptake of free pediatric cataract surgery in Malawi. Ophthal Epidemiol, 21(3), 138–143 (2014). doi: 10.3109/09286586.2014.892139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Padhi TR, Badhani A, Mahajan S, et al. Barriers to timely presentation for appropriate care of retinopathy of prematurity in Odisha, Eastern India. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2019;67(6):824–827. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_972_18
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan Z, Isaacs M, Zhu Z, et al. Retinopathy of prematurity screening: a narrative review of current programs, teleophthalmology, and diagnostic support systems. Saudi J Ophthalmol. 2022;36(3):283–295. doi:10.4103/sjopt.sjopt_220_21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jalali S, Anand R, Rani PK, et al. Impact of the day-30 screening strategy on the disease presentation and outcome of retinopathy of prematurity. The Indian twin cities retinopathy of prematurity report number 3. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2014;62(5):610–614. doi: 10.4103/0301-4738.118449
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmamula S, Khanna RC, Shekhar K, et al. A population-based cross-sectional study of barriers to uptake of eye care services in South India: the rapid assessment of visual impairment (RAVI) project. BMJ Open. 2014;4(6):e005125. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005125
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dandona R, Dandona L Review of findings of the Andhra Pradesh eye disease study: policy implications for eye-care services. Indian J Ophthalmol, 49(4), 215–234 (2001).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mailu EW, Virendrakumar B, Bechange S, et al. Factors associated with the uptake of cataract surgery and interventions to improve uptake in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review. PLoS One. 2020;15(7):e0235699. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0235699
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramke J, Petkovic J, Welch V, et al. Interventions to improve access to cataract surgical services and their impact on equity in low- and middle-income countries. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 11(11), CD011307 (2017).doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011307.pub2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mercer GD, Lyons P, Bassett K Interventions to improve gender equity in eye care in low-middle income countries: a systematic review. Ophthal Epidemiol, 26(3), 189–199 (2019). doi: 10.1080/09286586.2019.1574839
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finger RP, Ali M, Earnest J, et al. Cataract surgery in Andhra Pradesh state, India: an investigation into uptake following outreach screening camps. Ophthal Epidemiol, 14(6), 327–332 (2007). doi: 10.1080/01658100701486814
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Finger RP, Kupitz DG, Holz FG, et al. Regular provision of outreach increases acceptance of cataract surgery in South India. Tropical Med Int Health, 16(10), 1268–1275 (2011). doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2011.02835.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitsuhiro MH, Berezovsky A, Belfort R Jr., et al. Uptake, barriers and outcomes in the follow-up of patients referred for free-of-cost cataract surgery in the sao paulo eye study. Ophthal Epidemiol, 22(4), 253–259 (2015). doi: 10.3109/09286586.2014.966849
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Razafinimpanana N, Nkumbe H, Courtright P, et al. Uptake of cataract surgery in Sava region, Madagascar: role of cataract case finders in acceptance of cataract surgery. Int Ophthalmol, 32(2), 107–111 (2012). doi: 10.1007/s10792-012-9523-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang XJ, Liang YB, Liu YP, et al. Implementation of a free cataract surgery program in rural China: a community-based randomized interventional study. Ophthalmol. 2013;120(2):260–265. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.07.087
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verma R, Khanna P, Prinja S, et al. The national programme for control of blindness in India. Australas Med J. 2011;4(1):1–3. doi: 10.4066/AMJ.2011.505
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McCormick I, Butcher R, Evans JR, et al. Effective cataract surgical coverage in adults aged 50 years and older: estimates from population-based surveys in 55 countries. Lancet Glob Health. 2022;10(12):e1744–e1753. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(22)00419-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yasmin S, Schmidt E Primary eye care: opportunities for health system strengthening and improved access to services. Int Health, 14(Suppl 1), i37–i40 (2022). doi: 10.1093/inthealth/ihab062
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bowser D, Landey N, Njie MA, et al. Health system strengthening for vision care in the Gambia. Rural Remote Health. 2021;21(2):6245. doi: 10.22605/RRH6245
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ko KK, Pumpaibool T, Wynn MMM, et al. Door-to-door eye health education to improve knowledge, attitude, and uptake of eyecare services among elderly with cataracts: a quasi-experimental study in the central tropical region, Myanmar. Clin Ophthalmol. 2021;15:815–824. doi: 10.2147/OPTH.S287257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khanna RC, Sabherwal S, Sil A, et al. Primary eye care in India - the vision center model. Indian J Ophthalmol, 68(2), 333–339 (2020). doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_118_19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar A, Vashist P. Indian community eye care in 2020: achievements and challenges. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2020;68(2):291–293. doi:10.4103/ijo.IJO_2381_19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jain BK, Jain E, Kuyyadiyil S, et al. High volume and high quality eye care - bridging the paradox. A unique rural based approach - the chitrakoot model. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2020;68(2):294–298. doi:10.4103/ijo.IJO_61_20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhadauria M. Community eye care - the sitapur model. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2020;68(2):303–304. doi:10.4103/ijo.IJO_53_20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao GN, Khanna RC, Athota SM, et al. Integrated model of primary and secondary eye care for underserved rural areas: the L V Prasad Eye Institute experience. Indian J Ophthalmol, 60(5), 396–400 (2012). doi: 10.4103/0301-4738.100533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmamula S, Varada R, Williams JD, et al. Vision guardians for community eye health: the LV Prasad eye Institute model in India. Community Eye Health. 2022;35(115):24–26.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marmamula S, Khanna RC, Yellapragada S, et al. Temporal trends in the prevalence and causes of visual impairment in the South Indian state of Telangana: a population-based cross-sectional study. BMJ Open. 2019;9(7):e029114. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-029114
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das AV, Khanna RC, Kumar N, et al. Impact of implementing teleophthalmology referral guidelines using the eyeSmart EMR app in 63,703 patients from India. Int J Telemed Appl, 2022, 8523131 (2022). doi: 10.1155/2022/8523131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das AV, Mididoddi S, Kammari P, et al. App-based tele ophthalmology: a novel method of rural eye care delivery connecting tertiary eye care center and vision centers in India. Int J Telemed Appl, 2019, 8107064 (2019). doi: 10.1155/2019/8107064
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• John S, Sengupta S, Reddy SJ, et al. The Sankara Nethralaya mobile teleophthalmology model for comprehensive eye care delivery in rural India. Telemed J E Health. 2012 Jun;18(5):382–387. doi: 10.1089/tmj.2011.0190
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Misra N, Khanna RC, Mettla AL, et al. Role of teleophthalmology to manage anterior segment conditions in vision centres of south India: EyeSmart study-I. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2020;68(2):362–367. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_991_19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen LS, Tsai CY, Liu TY, et al. Feasibility of tele-ophthalmology for screening for eye disease in remote communities. J Telemed Telecare. 2004;10(6):337–341. doi: 10.1258/1357633042602035
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumari Rani P, Raman R, Manikandan M, et al. Patient satisfaction with tele-ophthalmology versus ophthalmologist-based screening in diabetic retinopathy. J Telemed Telecare. 2006;12(3):159–160. doi: 10.1258/135763306776738639
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah Z, Shroff U, Gajiwala U, et al. A technological approach to “reaching the unreached” - leveraging teleophthalmology services in rural Gujarat. Indian J Ophthalmol, 71(8), 2995–3000 (2023). doi: 10.4103/IJO.IJO_3010_22
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das AV, Kammari P, Vadapalli R, et al. Big data and the eyeSmart electronic medical record system - an 8-year experience from a three-tier eye care network in India. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2020;68(3):427–432. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_710_19
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmamula S, Yanamala NK, Khanna RC “Eyecare on call” - extending the frontiers of care through home-based eye care - concept and the protocol. Indian J Ophthalmol, 68(11), 2625–2627 (2020). 10.4103/ijo.IJO_2352_20
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdul Rahman SNA, Naing NN, Othman AM, et al. Validity and reliability of Vis-screen application: a smartphone-based distance vision testing for visual impairment and blindness vision screening. Medicina, 59(5) (2023). 912 doi: 10.3390/medicina59050912
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Abdulhussein D, Abdul Hussein M, Szymanka M, et al. A systematic review of the current availability of mobile applications in eyecare practices. Eur J Ophthalmol, 33(2), 754–766 (2022). doi: 10.1177/11206721221131397
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bastawrous A, Rono HK, Livingstone IAT, et al. Development and validation of a smartphone-based visual acuity test (peek acuity) for clinical practice and community-based fieldwork. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2015;133(8):930–937. doi: 10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2015.1468
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davara ND, Chintoju R, Manchikanti N, et al. Feasibility study for measuring patients’ visual acuity at home by their caregivers. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2022;70(6):2125–2130. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_3085_21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christy B, Mahalakshmi M, Aishwarya TV, et al. Tele-rehabilitation for persons with vision impairment during COVID-19: experiences and lessons learned. Indian J Ophthalmol. 2022;70(3):1026–1029. doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_1722_21
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lake AJ, Browne JL, Rees G, et al. What factors influence uptake of retinal screening among young adults with type 2 diabetes? A qualitative study informed by the theoretical domains framework. J Diabetes Complications. 2017;31(6):997–1006. doi: 10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2017.02.020
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowdell F, Dyson J. How is the theoretical domains framework applied to developing health behaviour interventions? A systematic search and narrative synthesis. BMC Public Health. 2019;19(1):1180. doi: 10.1186/s12889-019-7442-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar