Associationism and cognition: Human contingency learning at 25

REFERENCES

• Allan , L. G. , Siegel , S. and Hannah , S. 2007 . The sad truth about depressive realism . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 60 : 482 – 495 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allan , L. G. , Siegel , S. and Tangen , J. M. 2005 . A signal detection analysis of contingency data . Learning & Behavior , 33 : 250 – 263 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alloy , L. B. and Abramson , L. Y. 1979 . Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: Sadder but wiser? . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 108 : 441 – 485 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arcediano , F. , Matute , H. , Escobar , M. and Miller , R. R. 2005 . Competition between antecedent and between subsequent stimuli in causal judgments . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 31 : 228 – 237 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balleine , B. W. , Espinet , A. and González , F. 2005 . Perceptual learning enhances retrospective revaluation of conditioned flavor preferences in rats . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes , 31 : 341 – 350 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh , J. A. , Chen , M. and Burrows , L. 1996 . Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 71 : 230 – 244 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barsalou , L. W. , Simmons , W. K. , Barbey , A. K. and Wilson , C. D. 2003 . Grounding conceptual knowledge in modality-specific systems . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 7 : 84 – 91 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beckers , T. , De Houwer , J. , Pineño , O. and Miller , R. R. 2005 . Outcome additivity and outcome maximality influence cue competition in human causal learning . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 31 : 238 – 249 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Booth , S. L. and Buehner , M. J. 2007 . Asymmetries in cue competition in forward and backward blocking designs: Further evidence for causal model theory . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 60 : 387 – 399 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandon , S. E. , Vogel , E. H. and Wagner , A. R. 2000 . A componential view of configural cues in generalization and discrimination in Pavlovian conditioning . Behavioural Brain Research , 110 : 67 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewer , W. F. 1974 . “ There is no convincing evidence for operant or classical conditioning in adult humans ” . In Cognition and the symbolic processes , Edited by: Weimer , W. B. and Palermo , D. S. 1 – 42 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Brown , P. L. and Jenkins , H. M. 1968 . Auto-shaping of the pigeon's key peck . Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior , 11 : 1 – 8 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng , P. W. 1997 . From covariation to causation: A causal power theory . Psychological Review , 104 : 367 – 405 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cobos , P. L. , López , F. J. , Caño , A. , Almaraz , J. and Shanks , D. R. 2002 . Mechanisms of predictive and diagnostic causal induction . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes , 28 : 331 – 346 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cobos , P. L. , López , F. J. and Luque , J. L. 2007 . Interference between cues of the same outcome depends on the causal interpretation of the events . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 60 : 369 – 386 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins , D. J. and Shanks , D. R. 2006 . Conformity to the power PC theory of causal induction depends on the type of probe question . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 59 : 225 – 232 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corlett , P. R. , Aitken , M. R. F. , Dickinson , A. , Shanks , D. R. , Honey , G. D. Honey , R. A. E. 2004 . Prediction error during retrospective revaluation of causal associations in humans: fMRI evidence in favor of an associative model of learning . Neuron , 44 : 877 – 888 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowder , R. G. 1976 . Principles of learning and memory , Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Danks , D. 2003 . Equilibria of the Rescorla–Wagner model . Journal of Mathematical Psychology , 47 : 109 – 121 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Houwer , J. and Beckers , T. 2002 . Higher-order retrospective revaluation in human causal learning . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 55B : 137 – 151 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Houwer , J. and Beckers , T. 2003 . Secondary task difficulty modulates forward blocking in human contingency learning . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 56B : 345 – 357 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Houwer , J. , Beckers , T. and Glautier , S. 2002 . Outcome and cue properties modulate blocking . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 55A : 965 – 985 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Houwer , J. , Beckers , T. and Vandorpe , S. 2005a . Evidence for the role of higher order reasoning processes in cue competition and other learning phenomena . Learning & Behavior , 33 : 239 – 249 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Houwer , J. , Vandorpe , S. and Beckers , T. 2005b . “ On the role of controlled cognitive processes in human associative learning ” . In New directions in human associative learning , Edited by: Wills , A. J. 41 – 63 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• De Houwer , J. , Vandorpe , S. and Beckers , T. 2007 . Statistical contingency has a different impact on preparation judgements than on causal judgements . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 60 : 418 – 432 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denniston , J. C. , Savastano , H. I. , Blaisdell , A. P. and Miller , R. R. 2003 . Cue competition as a retrieval deficit . Learning and Motivation , 34 : 1 – 31 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickinson , A. 1980 . Contemporary animal learning theory , Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dickinson , A. and Burke , J. 1996 . Within-compound associations mediate the retrospective revaluation of causality judgements . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 49B : 60 – 80 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickinson , A. , Shanks , D. R. and Evenden , J. L. 1984 . Judgement of act–outcome contingency: The role of selective attribution . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 36A : 29 – 50 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Field , A. P. 2005 . “ Learning to like (or dislike): Associative learning of preferences ” . In New directions in human associative learning , Edited by: Wills , A. J. 221 – 252 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Fletcher , P. C. , Anderson , J. M. , Shanks , D. R. , Honey , R. , Carpenter , T. A. Donovan , T. 2001 . Responses of human frontal cortex to surprising events are predicted by formal associative learning theory . Nature Neuroscience , 4 : 1043 – 1048 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fodor , J. A. 2003 . Hume variations , Oxford, , UK : Clarendon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gallistel , C. R. and Gibbon , J. 2001 . Computational versus associative models of simple conditioning . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 10 : 146 – 150 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghirlanda , S. 2005 . Retrospective revaluation as simple associative learning . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes , 31 : 107 – 111 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gluck , M. A. and Bower , G. H. 1988 . From conditioning to category learning: An adaptive network model . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 117 : 227 – 247 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hagmayer , Y. and Waldmann , M. R. 2007 . Inferences about unobserved causes in human contingency learning . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 60 : 330 – 355 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall , G. 1991 . Perceptual and associative learning , Oxford, , UK : Clarendon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hebb , D. O. 1949 . Organization of behavior , New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Hershberger , W. A. 1986 . An approach through the looking-glass . Animal Learning & Behavior , 14 : 443 – 451 .
   Google Scholar
• Hinton , G. E. and Anderson , J. A. 1989 . Parallel models of associative memory , Edited by: Hinton , G. E. and Anderson , J. A. Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Holland , P. C. 1990 . Event representation in Pavlovian conditioning: Image and action . Cognition , 37 : 105 – 131 .
   Google Scholar
• Hommel , B. , Müsseler , J. , Aschersleben , G. and Prinz , W. 2001 . The theory of event coding (TEC): A framework for perception and action planning . Behavioral and Brain Sciences , 24 : 849 – 937 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins , H. M. and Ward , W. C. 1965 . Judgment of contingency between responses and outcomes . Psychological Monographs , 79 (Whole Number 594)
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kahneman , D. 2003 . A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality . American Psychologist , 58 : 697 – 720 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karazinov , D. M. and Boakes , R. A. 2007 . Second order conditioning in human predictive judgments when there is little time to think . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 60 : 448 – 460 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinder , A. and Shanks , D. R. 2001 . Amnesia and the declarative/nondeclarative distinction: A recurrent network model of classification, recognition, and repetition priming . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 13 : 648 – 669 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinder , A. and Shanks , D. R. 2003 . Neuropsychological dissociations between priming and recognition: A single-system connectionist account . Psychological Review , 110 : 728 – 744 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lagnado , D. A. and Shanks , D. R. 2002 . Probability judgment in hierarchical learning: A conflict between predictiveness and coherence . Cognition , 83 : 81 – 112 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larkin , M. J. W. , Aitken , M. R. F. and Dickinson , A. 1998 . Retrospective revaluation of causal judgments under positive and negative contingencies . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 24 : 1331 – 1352 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Pelley , M. E. , Oakeshott , S. M. and McLaren , I. P. L. 2005 . Blocking and unblocking in human causal learning . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes , 31 : 56 – 70 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livesey , E. J. and Boakes , R. A. 2004 . Outcome additivity, elemental processing and blocking in human causality judgements . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 57B : 361 – 379 .
   Google Scholar
• López , F. J. , Cobos , P. L. and Caño , A. 2005 . Associative and causal reasoning accounts of causal induction: Symmetries and asymmetries in predictive and diagnostic inferences . Memory & Cognition , 33 : 1388 – 1398 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• López , F. J. , Cobos , P. L. , Caño , A. and Shanks , D. R. 1998 . “ The rational analysis of human causal and probability judgment ” . In Rational models of cognition , Edited by: Oaksford , M. and Chater , N. 314 – 352 . Oxford, , UK : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lovibond , P. F. 2003 . Causal beliefs and conditioned responses: Retrospective revaluation induced by experience and by instruction . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 29 : 97 – 106 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovibond , P. F. , Been , S.-L. , Mitchell , C. J. , Bouton , M. E. and Frohardt , R. 2003 . Forward and backward blocking of causal judgment is enhanced by additivity of effect magnitude . Memory & Cognition , 31 : 133 – 142 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovibond , P. F. and Shanks , D. R. 2002 . The role of awareness in Pavlovian conditioning: Empirical evidence and theoretical implications . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes , 28 : 3 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackintosh , N. J. 1975 . A theory of attention: Variations in the associability of stimuli with reinforcement . Psychological Review , 82 : 276 – 298 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackintosh , N. J. 1983 . Conditioning and associative learning , Oxford, , UK : Clarendon Press .
   Google Scholar
• McClelland , J. L. and Rumelhart , D. E. 1981 . An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Part 1. An account of basic findings . Psychological Review , 88 : 375 – 407 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClelland , J. L. and Rumelhart , D. E. 1985 . Distributed memory and the representation of general and specific information . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 114 : 159 – 188 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGeoch , J. A. and Irion , A. L. 1952 . The psychology of human learning , 2nd ed. , New York : Longmans, Green & Co .
   Google Scholar
• Melchers , K. G. , Lachnit , H. and Shanks , D. R. 2004 . Within-compound associations in retrospective revaluation and in direct learning: A challenge for comparator theory . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 57B : 25 – 53 .
   Google Scholar
• Melchers , K. G. , Lachnit , H. and Shanks , D. R. 2006 . The comparator theory fails to account for the selective role of within-compound associations in cue selection effects . Experimental Psychology , 53 : 316 – 320 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell , C. J. , Livesey , E. and Lovibond , P. F. 2007 . A dissociation between causal judgement and the ease with which a cause is categorised with its effect . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 60 : 400 – 417 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell , C. J. and Lovibond , P. F. 2002 . Backward and forward blocking in human electrodermal conditioning: Blocking requires an assumption of outcome additivity . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 55B : 311 – 329 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell , C. J. , Lovibond , P. F. , Minard , E. and Lavis , Y. 2006 . Forward blocking in human learning sometimes reflects the failure to encode a cue–outcome relationship . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 59 : 830 – 844 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Msetfi , R. M. , Murphy , R. A. and Simpson , J. 2007 . Depressive realism and the effect of intertrial interval on judgements of zero, positive and negative contingencies . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 60 : 461 – 481 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osman , M. 2004 . An evaluation of dual-process theories of reasoning . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 11 : 988 – 1010 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearce , J. M. 1994 . Similarity and discrimination: A selective review and a connectionist model . Psychological Review , 101 : 587 – 607 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearce , J. M. and Hall , G. 1980 . A model for Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of conditioned but not of unconditioned stimuli . Psychological Review , 87 : 532 – 552 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perales , J. C. , Catena , A. , Shanks , D. R. and González , J. A. 2005 . Dissociation between judgments and outcome-expectancy measures in covariation learning: A signal detection theory approach . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 31 : 1105 – 1120 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perales , J. C. and Shanks , D. R. 2003 . Normative and descriptive accounts of the influence of power and contingency on causal judgment . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 56A : 977 – 1007 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perruchet , P. and Amorim , M.-A. 1992 . Conscious knowledge and changes in performance in sequence learning: Evidence against dissociation . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 18 : 785 – 800 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pineño , O. and Miller , R. R. 2007 . Comparing associative, statistical, and inferential reasoning accounts of human contingency learning . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 60 : 310 – 329 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price , P. C. and Yates , J. F. 1993 . Judgmental overshadowing: Further evidence of cue interaction in contingency judgment . Memory & Cognition , 21 : 561 – 572 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rescorla , R. A. and Solomon , R. L. 1967 . Two-process learning theory: Relationships between Pavlovian and instrumental learning . Psychological Review , 74 : 151 – 182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenblatt , F. 1962 . Principles of neurodynamics , New York : Spartan .
   Google Scholar
• Ryan , J. D. and Cohen , N. J. 2003 . Evaluating the neuropsychological dissociation evidence for multiple memory systems . Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience , 3 : 168 – 185 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultz , W. and Dickinson , A. 2000 . Neuronal coding of prediction errors . Annual Review of Neuroscience , 23 : 473 – 500 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanks , D. R. 1985 . Forward and backward blocking in human contingency judgement . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 37B : 1 – 21 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanks , D. R. 1990 . On the cognitive theory of conditioning . Biological Psychology , 30 : 171 – 179 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanks , D. R. 2005a . “ Connectionist models of basic human learning processes ” . In Connectionist models in cognitive psychology , Edited by: Houghton , G. 45 – 82 . Hove, , UK : Psychology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Shanks , D. R. 2005b . “ Implicit learning ” . In Handbook of cognition , Edited by: Lamberts , K. and Goldstone , R. L. 202 – 220 . London : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Shanks , D. R. and Darby , R. J. 1998 . Feature- and rule-based generalization in human associative learning . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes , 24 : 405 – 415 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanks , D. R. and Dickinson , A. 1990 . Contingency awareness in evaluative conditioning: A comment on Baeyens, Eelen, and van den Bergh . Cognition & Emotion , 4 : 19 – 30 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanks , D. R. and Dickinson , A. 1991 . Instrumental judgment and performance under variations in action–outcome contingency and contiguity . Memory & Cognition , 19 : 353 – 360 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shanks , D. R. , Holyoak , K. J. and Medin , D. L. 1996 . The psychology of learning and motivation: Vol. 34. Causal learning , Edited by: Shanks , D. R. , Holyoak , K. J. and Medin , D. L. San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Shanks , D. R. and Lovibond , P. F. 2002 . Autonomic and eyeblink conditioning are closely related to contingency awareness: Reply to Wiens and Öhman (2002) and Manns et al. (2002) . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes , 28 : 38 – 42 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shanks , D. R. and Pearson , S. M. A production system model of causality judgment . Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society , pp. 210 – 220 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Shanks , D. R. and St. John , M. F. 1994 . Characteristics of dissociable human learning systems . Behavioral and Brain Sciences , 17 : 367 – 447 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shevill , I. and Hall , G. 2004 . Retrospective revaluation effects in the conditioned suppression procedure . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 57B : 331 – 347 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smedslund , J. 1963 . The concept of correlation in adults . Scandinavian Journal of Psychology , 4 : 165 – 173 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , C. N. , Clark , R. E. , Manns , J. R. and Squire , L. R. 2005 . Acquisition of differential delay eyeblink classical conditioning is independent of awareness . Behavioral Neuroscience , 119 : 78 – 86 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Squire , L. R. 1994 . “ Declarative and nondeclarative memory: Multiple brain systems supporting learning and memory ” . In Memory systems , Edited by: Schacter , D. L. and Tulving , E. 203 – 231 . Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Tangen , J. M. , Allan , L. G. and Sadeghi , H. 2005 . “ Assessing (in)sensitivity to causal asymmetry: A matter of degree ” . In New directions in human associative learning , Edited by: Wills , A. J. 65 – 93 . Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Thorndike , E. L. 1931 . Human learning , New York : Century .
   Google Scholar
• Tilton , J. W. 1926 . The relation between association and the higher mental processes , New York : Teachers College .
   Google Scholar
• Tulving , E. and Donaldson , W. 1972 . Organization and memory , New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Tunney , R. J. and Shanks , D. R. 2003 . Subjective measures of awareness and implicit cognition . Memory & Cognition , 31 : 1060 – 1071 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner , D. C. , Aitken , M. R. F. , Shanks , D. R. , Sahakian , B. J. , Robbins , T. W. Schwarzbauer , C. 2004 . The role of the lateral frontal cortex in causal associative learning: Exploring preventative and super-learning . Cerebral Cortex , 14 : 872 – 880 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vadillo , M. A. and Matute , H. 2007 . Predictions and causal estimations are not supported by the same associative structure . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 60 : 433 – 447 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandorpe , S. , De Houwer , J. and Beckers , T. 2007 . Outcome maximality and additivity training also influence cue competition in causal learning when learning involves many cues and events . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 60 : 356 – 368 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waldmann , M. R. 2001 . Predictive versus diagnostic causal learning: Evidence from an overshadowing paradigm . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 8 : 600 – 608 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waldmann , M. R. and Holyoak , K. J. Can causal induction be reduced to associative learning? . Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society , pp. 190 – 197 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Williams , D. A. 1996 . “ A comparative analysis of negative contingency learning in humans and nonhumans ” . In The psychology of learning and motivation: Vol 34. Causal learning , Edited by: Shanks , D. R. , Holyoak , K. J. and Medin , D. L. 89 – 131 . San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Williams , D. A. , Sagness , K. E. and McPhee , J. E. 1994 . Configural and elemental strategies in predictive learning . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 20 : 694 – 709 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winman , A. , Wennerholm , P. , Juslin , P. and Shanks , D. R. 2005 . Evidence for rule-based processes in the inverse base-rate effect . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 58A : 789 – 815 .
   Google Scholar
• Zajonc , R. B. 1980 . Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences . American Psychologist , 35 : 151 – 175 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaki , S. R. 2005 . Is categorization performance really intact in amnesia? A meta-analysis . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 11 : 1048 – 1054 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar