Looming animate and inanimate threats: The response of the amygdala and periaqueductal gray

REFERENCES

• Adolphs, R. (2009 ). The social brain: Neural basis of social knowledge. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 693 –716. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163514.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blair, K. S., Shaywitz, J., Smith, B. W., Rhodes, R., Geraci, M., Jones, M. , … Pine, D. S. (2008 ). Response to emotional expressions in generalized social phobia and generalized anxiety disorder: Evidence for separate disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 1193 –1202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blair, R. J. R. (2004 ). The neurobiology of aggression . In D. S. Charney & E. J. Nestler (Eds.), Neurobiology of mental illness (pp. 1076 –1085). New York, NY : Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Blanchard, R. J., Blanchard, D. C. & Takahashi, L. K. (1977 ). Attack and defensive behaviour in the albino rat. Animal Behaviour, 25, 197 –224.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chao, L. L., Weisberg, J. & Martin, A. (2002 ). Experience-dependent modulation of category-related cortical activity. Cerebral Cortex, 12 (12 ), 545 –551.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cox, R. W. (1996 ). AFNI: Software for analysis and visualization of functional magnetic resonance neuroimages. Computers and Biomedical Research, 29, 162 –173.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• First, M., Spitzer, R., Gibbon, M. & Williams, J. (1997 ). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV. Washington, DC : American Psychiatric Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gobbini, M. I., Gentili, C., Ricciardi, E., Bellucci, C., Salvini, P., Laschi, C. , … Pietrini, P. (2011 ). Distinct neural systems involved in agency and animacy detection. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23 (8 ), 1911 –1920. doi:10.1162/jocn.2010.21574.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregg, T. R. & Siegel, A. (2001 ). Brain structures and neurotransmitters regulating aggression in cats: Implications for human aggression. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 25 (1 ), 91 –140.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansen, J. P., Cain, C. K., Ostroff, L. E. & LeDoux, J. E. (2011 ). Molecular mechanisms of fear learning and memory. Cell, 147 (3 ), 509 –524. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2011.10.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsh, A. A., Finger, E. C., Mitchell, D. G. V., Reid, M. E., Sims, C., Kosson, D. S. , … Blair, R. J. R. (2008 ). Reduced amygdala response to fearful expressions in children and adolescents with callous-unemotional traits and disruptive behavior disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165 (6 ), 712 –720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin, A. & Weisberg, J. (2003 ). Neural foundations for understanding social and mechanical concepts. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 20 (3–6 ), 575 –587. doi:10.1080/02643290342000005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McNaughton, N. & Corr, P. J. (2004 ). A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: Fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 28 (3 ), 285 –305. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.03.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mineka, S. & Ohman, A. (2002 ). Phobias and preparedness: The selective, automatic, and encapsulated nature of fear. Biological Psychiatry, 52 (10 ), 927 –937.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mineka, S. & Zinbarg, R. (2006 ). A contemporary learning theory perspective on the etiology of anxiety disorders: It’s not what you thought it was. The American Psychologist, 61 (1 ), 10 –26. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.61.1.10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mobbs, D., Marchant, J. L., Hassabis, D., Seymour, B., Tan, G., Gray, M. , … Frith, C. D. (2009 ). From threat to fear: The neural organization of defensive fear systems in humans. Journal of Neuroscience, 29 (39 ), 12236 –12243. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2378-09.2009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mobbs, D., Petrovic, P., Marchant, J. L., Hassabis, D., Weiskopf, N., Seymour, B. , … Frith, C. D. (2007 ). When fear is near: Threat imminence elicits prefrontal-periacqueductal gray shifts in humans. Science, 317, 1079 –1083.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mobbs, D., Yu, R., Rowe, J. B., Eich, H., FeldmanHall, O. & Dalgleish, T. (2010 ). Neural activity associated with monitoring the oscillating threat value of a tarantula. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107 (47 ), 20582 –20586. doi:1009076107 [pii] 10.1073/pnas.1009076107 [doi].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohman, A. & Mineka, S. (2001 ). Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Review, 108 (3 ),483 –522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panksepp, J. (1998 ). Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. New York, NY : Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pessoa, L., Kastner, S. & Ungerleider, L. G. (2002 ). Attentional control of the processing of neutral and emotional stimuli. Cognitive Brain Research, 15, 31 –45.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Price, J. L. (1999 ). Prefrontal cortical networks related to visceral function and mood. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 877, 383 –396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price, J. L. (2007 ). Definition of the orbital cortex in relation to specific connections with limbic and visceral structures and other cortical regions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1121, 54 –71. doi:10.1196/annals.1401.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rauch, S. L., Shin, L. M. & Phelps, E. A. (2006 ). Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and extinction: Human neuroimaging research—past, present, and future. Biological Psychiatry, 60 (4 ), 376 –382.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santos, N. S., Kuzmanovic, B., David, N., Rotarska-Jagiela, A., Eickhoff, S. B., Shah, J. N. , … Vogeley, K. (2010 ). Animated brain: A functional neuroimaging study on animacy experience. NeuroImage, 53 (1 ), 291 –302. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.05.080.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegel, A., Roeling, T. A., Gregg, T. R. & Kruk, M. R. (1999 ). Neuropharmacology of brain-stimulation-evoked aggression. Neuroscience Biobehavioral Review, 23, 359 –389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silva, J. A., Derecho, D. V., Leong, G. B., Weinstock, R. & Ferrari, M. M. (2001 ). A classification of psychological factors leading to violent behavior in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 46 (2 ), 309 –316.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Talairach, J. & Tournoux, P. (1988 ). Co-planar stereotaxic atlas of the human brain. Stuttgart : Thieme.
   Google Scholar
• Wheatley, T., Milleville, S. C. & Martin, A. (2007 ). Understanding animate agents: Distinct roles for the social network and mirror system. Psychological Science, 18 (6 ), 469 –474.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White, S. F., Marsh, A. A., Fowler, K. A., Schechter, J. C., Adalio, C., Pope, K. , … Blair, R. J. R. (2012 ). Reduced amygdala responding in youth with Disruptive Behavior Disorder and Psychopathic Traits reflects a reduced emotional response not increased top—down attention to non-emotional features. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169 (7 ), 750 –758.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, J., Bellgowan, P. S. & Martin, A. (2013 ). Threat, domain specificity and the human amygdala. Neuropsychologia, 50, 2566 –2572.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zald, D. H. (2003 ). The human amygdala and the emotional evaluation of sensory stimuli. Brain Research Reviews, 41 (1 ), 88 –123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar