612
Views
17
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Race perception and gaze direction differently impair visual working memory for faces: An event-related potential study

&
Pages 97-107 | Received 15 Sep 2014, Accepted 08 Apr 2015, Published online: 07 May 2015

References

  • Adams Jr., R. B., Pauker, K., & Weisbuch, M. (2010). Looking the other way: The role of gaze direction in the cross-race memory effect. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 478–481. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.12.016
  • Amodio, D. M., Harmon-Jones, E., & Devine, P. G. (2003). Individual differences in the activation and control of affective race bias as assessed by startle eyeblink response and self-report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 738–753. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.738
  • Avenanti, A., Sirigu, A., & Aglioti, S. M. (2010). Racial bias reduces empathic sensorimotor resonance with other-race pain. Current Biology, 20, 1018–1022. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2010.03.071
  • Awh, E., Barton, B., & Vogel, E. K. (2007). Visual working memory represents a fixed number of items, regardless of complexity. Psychological Science, 18, 622–628. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01949.x
  • Bentin, S., & Deouell, L. Y. (2000). Structural encoding and identification in face processing: ERP evidence for separate mechanisms. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 17, 35–55. doi:10.1080/026432900380472
  • Brosch, T., Bar-David, E., & Phelps, E. A. (2013). Implicit race bias decreases the similarity of neural representations of black and white faces. Psychological Science, 24, 160–166. doi:10.1177/0956797612451465
  • Bruce, V., & Young, A. (1986). Understanding face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 77, 305–327. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1986.tb02199.x
  • Caldara, R., Thut, G., Servoir, P., Michel, C. M., Bovet, P., & Renault, B. (2003). Face versus non-face object perception and the ‘other-race’ effect: A spatio-temporal event-related potential study. Clinical Neurophysiology, 114, 515–528. doi:10.1016/S1388-2457(02)00407-8
  • Conty, L., & Grèzes, J. (2012). Look at me, I’ll remember you: The perception of self-relevant social cues enhances memory and right hippocampal activity. Human Brain Mapping, 33, 2428–2440. doi:10.1002/hbm.21366
  • Crisp, R. J., & Hewstone, M. (2007). Multiple social categorization. San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press.
  • Cunningham, W. A., Johnson, M. K., Raye, C. L., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., & Banaji, M. R. (2004). Separable neural components in the processing of black and white faces. Psychological Science, 15, 806–813. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00760.x
  • Dalmaso, M., Galfano, G., Coricelli, C., & Castelli, L. (2014). Temporal dynamics underlying the modulation of social status on social attention. PLoS ONE, 9, e93139. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0093139
  • Dell’Acqua, R., Sessa, P., Jolicœur, P., & Robitaille, N. (2006). Spatial attention freezes during the attention blink. Psychophysiology, 43, 394–400. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00411.x
  • Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5
  • Duncan, J. (1984). Selective attention and the organization of visual information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 501–517. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.113.4.501
  • Eimer, M. (2000). Event-related brain potentials distinguish processing stages involved in face perception and recognition. Clinical Neurophysiology, 111, 694–705. doi:10.1016/S1388-2457(99)00285-0
  • Emery, N. J. (2000). The eyes have it: The neuroethology, function and evolution of social gaze. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 24, 581–604. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(00)00025-7
  • Frischen, A., Bayliss, A. P., & Tipper, S. P. (2007). Gaze cueing of attention: Visual attention, social cognition, and individual differences. Psychological Bulletin & Review, 133, 694–724. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.694
  • Gajewski, D. A., & Brockmole, J. R. (2006). Feature bindings endure without attention: Evidence from an explicit recall task. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 13, 581–587. doi:10.3758/BF03193966
  • Golarai, G., Ghahremani, D. G., Eberhardt, J. L., Grill-Spector, K., & Gabrieli, G. D. E. (2004). Representation of parts and canonical face configuration in the amygdala, superior temporal sulcus (STS) and the fusiform “face area” (FFA). Journal of Vision, 4, 131. doi:10.1167/4.8.131
  • Golby, A. J., Gabrieli, J. D. E., Chiao, J. Y., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2001). Differential responses in the fusiform region to same-race and other-race faces. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 845–850. doi:10.1038/90565
  • Green, D. M., & Swets, J. A. (1974). Signal detection theory and psychophysics. Huntington, NY: Krieger.
  • Hancock, K. J., & Rhodes, G. (2008). Contact, configural coding and the other-race effect in face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 99, 45–56. doi:10.1348/000712607X199981
  • Hart, A. J., Whalen, P. J., Shin, L. M., McInerney, S. C., Fischer, H., & Rauch, S. L. (2000). Differential response in the human amygdala to racial out-group vs ingroup face stimuli. NeuroReport, 11, 2351–2354. doi:10.1097/00001756-200008030-00004
  • Haxby, J. V., Hoffman, E. A., & Gobbinia, M. I. (2002). Human neural systems for face recognition and social communication. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 59–67. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01330-0
  • He, Y., Johnson, M. K., Dovidio, J. F., & McCarthy, G. (2009). The relation between race-related implicit associations and scalp-recorded neural activity evoked by faces from different races. Social Neuroscience, 4, 426–442. doi:10.1080/17470910902949184
  • Heil, M., Rolke, B., & Pecchinenda, A. (2004). Automatic semantic activation is no myth: Semantic context effects on the N400 in the letter-search task in the absence of response time effects. Psychological Science, 15, 852–857. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00766.x
  • Herrmann, M. J., Schreppel, T., Jäger, D., Koehler, S., Ehlis, A.-C., & Fallgatter, A. J. (2007). The other-race effect for face perception: An event-related potential study. Journal of Neural Transmission, 114, 951–957. doi:10.1007/s00702-007-0624-9
  • Hietanen, J. K., Leppänen, J. M., Peltola, M. J., Linna-Aho, K., & Ruuhiala, H. J. (2008). Seeing direct and averted gaze activates the approach-avoidance motivational brain systems. Neuropsychologia, 46, 2423–2430. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.02.029
  • Hood, B. M., Macrae, C. N., Cole-Davies, V., & Dias, M. (2003). Eye remember you: The effects of gaze direction on face recognition in children and adults. Developmental Science, 6, 67–71. doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00256
  • Hugenberg, K., Wilson, J. P., See, P. E., & Young, S. G. (2013). Towards a synthetic model of own group biases in face memory. Visual Cognition, 21, 1392–1417. doi:10.1080/13506285.2013.821429
  • Hugenberg, K., Young, S., Bernstein, M., & Sacco, D. F. (2010). The categorization-individuation model: An integrative account of the other-race recognition deficit. Psychological Review, 117, 1168–1187. doi:10.1037/a0020463
  • Ito, T. A., & Urland, G. R. (2005). The influence of processing objectives on the perception of faces: An ERP study of race and gender perception. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 5, 21–36. doi:10.3758/CABN.5.1.21
  • Jolicœur, P., Sessa, P., Dell’Acqua, R., & Robitaille, N. (2006b). On the control of visual spatial attention: Evidence from human electrophysiology. Psychological Research, 70, 414–424. doi:10.1007/s00426-005-0008-4
  • Jolicœur, P., Sessa, P., Dell’Acqua, R., & Robitaille, N. (2006a). Attentional control and capture in the attentional blink paradigm: Evidence from human electrophysiology. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 18, 560–578. doi:10.1080/09541440500423210
  • Jones, B. C., DeBruine, L. M., Little, A. C., Conway, C. A., & Feinberg, D. R. (2006). Integrating gaze direction and expression in preferences for attractive faces. Psychological Science, 17, 588–591. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01749.x
  • Luck, S. J., & Vogel, E. K. (1997). The capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions. Nature, 390, 279–281. doi:10.1038/36846
  • Luck, S. J., Vogel, E. K., & Shapiro, K. L. (1996). Word meanings can be accessed but not reported during the attentional blink. Nature, 383, 616–618. doi:10.1038/383616a0
  • Luria, R., Sessa, P., Gotler, A., Jolicœur, P., & Dell’Acqua, R. (2010). Visual short-term memory capacity for simple and complex objects. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22, 496–512. doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21214
  • Luria, R., & Vogel, E. K. (2011). Shape and color conjunction stimuli are represented as bound objects in visual working memory. Neuropsychologia, 49, 1632–1639. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.11.031
  • MacLin, O. H., & Malpass, R. S. (2001). Racial categorization of faces: The ambiguous race face effect. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7, 98–118. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.7.1.98
  • MacLin, O. H., & Malpass, R. S. (2003). The ambiguous-race face illusion. Perception, 32, 249–252. doi:10.1068/p5046
  • Macrae, C. N., Hood, B. M., Milne, A. B., Rowe, A. C., & Mason, M. F. (2002). Are you looking at me? Eye gaze and person perception. Psychological Science, 13, 460–464. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00481
  • Marshall, L., & Bays, P. M. (2013). Obligatory encoding of task-irrelevant features depletes working memory resources. Journal of Vision, 13, 21–21. doi:10.1167/13.2.21
  • Mason, M. F., Hood, B. M., & Macrae, C. N. (2004). Look into my eyes: Gaze direction and person memory. Memory, 12, 637–643. doi:10.1080/09658210344000152
  • Mason, M. F., Tatkow, E. P., & Macrae, C. N. (2005). The look of love: Gaze shifts and person perception. Psychological Science, 16, 236–239. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00809.x
  • Maurer, D., Le Grand, R., & Mondloch, C. J. (2002). The many faces of configural processing. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 255–260. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01903-4
  • Meconi, F., Luria, R., & Sessa, P. (2014). Individual differences in anxiety predict neural measures of visual working memory for untrustworthy faces. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9, 1872–1879. doi:10.1093/scan/nst189
  • Meissner, C. A., & Brigham, J. C. (2001). A meta-analysis of the verbal overshadowing effect in face identification. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15, 603–616. doi:10.1002/acp.728
  • Minear, M., & Park, D. C. (2004). A lifespan database of adult facial stimuli. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 630–633. doi:10.3758/BF03206543
  • Pavan, G., Dalmaso, M., Galfano, G., & Castelli, L. (2011). Racial group membership is associated to gaze-mediated orienting in Italy. PLoS ONE, 6, e25608. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025608
  • Phelps, E. A., O’Connor, K. J., Cunningham, W. A., Funayama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., & Banaji, M. R. (2000). Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 729–738. doi:10.1162/089892900562552
  • Richeson, J. A., Baird, A. A., Gordon, H. L., Heatherton, T. F., Wyland, C. L., Trawalter, S., & Shelton, J. N. (2003). An fMRI investigation of the impact of interracial contact on executive function. Nature Neuroscience, 6, 1323–1328. doi:10.1038/nn1156
  • Richeson, J. A., Todd, A. R., Trawalter, S., & Baird, A. A. (2008). Eye-Gaze direction modulates race-related amygdala activity. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 11, 233–246. doi:10.1177/1368430207088040
  • Senju, A., & Hasegawa, T. (2005). Direct gaze captures visuospatial attention. Visual Cognition, 12, 127–144. doi:10.1080/13506280444000157
  • Sessa, P., Luria, R., Gotler, A., Jolicœur, P., & Dell’Acqua, R. (2011). Inter-hemispheric ERP asymmetries over inferior parietal cortex reveal differential visual working memory maintenance for fearful versus neutral facial identities. Psychophysiology, 48, 187–197. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.01046.x
  • Sessa, P., Meconi, F., Castelli, L., & Dell’Acqua, R. (2014). Taking one’s time in feeling other-race pain: An event-related potential investigation on the time-course of cross-racial empathy. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9, 454–463. doi:10.1093/scan/nst003
  • Sessa, P., Tomelleri, S., Luria, R., Castelli, L., Reynolds, M., & Dell’Acqua, R. (2012). Look out for strangers! Sustained neural activity during visual working memory maintenance of other-race faces is modulated by implicit racial prejudice. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7, 314–321. doi:10.1093/scan/nsr011
  • Sheng, F., & Han, S. (2012). Manipulations of cognitive strategies and intergroup relationships reduce the racial bias in empathic neural responses. NeuroImage, 61, 786–797. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.028
  • Slepian, M. L., Weisbuch, M., Adams, R. B., & Ambady, N. (2011). Gender moderates the relationship between emotion and perceived gaze. Emotion, 11, 1439–1444. doi:10.1037/a0026163
  • Smith, A. D., Hood, B. M., & Hector, K. (2006). Eye remember you two: Gaze direction modulates face recognition in a developmental study. Developmental Science, 9, 465–472. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2006.00513.x
  • Stahl, J., Wiese, H., & Schweinberger, S. R. (2008). Expertise and own-race bias in face processing: An Event-related potential study. NeuroReport, 19, 583–587. doi:10.1097/WNR.0b013e3282f97b4d
  • Tajfel, H. (1981). Social stereotypes and social groups. In J. C. Turner & H. Giles (Eds.), Intergroup Behaviour (pp. 144–167). Oxford: Blackwell.
  • Tajfel, H., Billig, M., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 149–178. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420010202
  • Tanaka, J. W., & Farah, M. J. (1993). Parts and wholes in face recognition. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A: Human Experimental Psychology, 46, 225–245. doi:10.1080/14640749308401045
  • Tanaka, J. W., Kiefer, M., & Bukach, C. M. (2004). A holistic account of the own-race effect in face recognition: Evidence from a cross-cultural study. Cognition, 93, B1–B9. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2003.09.011
  • Taylor, S. E., Fiske, S. T., Etcoff, N. L., & Ruderman, A. J. (1978). Categorical and contextual bases of person memory and stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 778–793. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.36.7.778
  • Vizioli, L., Foreman, K., Rousselet, G. A., & Caldara, R. (2010). Inverting faces elicits sensitivity to race on the N170 component: A cross-cultural study. Journal of Vision, 10, 1–23. doi:10.1167/10.1.15
  • Vogel, E. K., & Machizawa, M. G. (2004). Neural activity predicts individual differences in visual working memory capacity. Nature, 428, 748–751. doi:10.1038/nature02447
  • Vogel, E. K., McCollough, A. W., & Machizawa, M. G. (2005). Neural measures reveal individual differences in controlling access to working memory. Nature, 438, 500–503. doi:10.1038/nature04171
  • Wheeler, M. E., & Fiske, S. T. (2005). Controlling racial prejudice: Social-cognitive goals affect amygdala and stereotype activation. Psychological Science, 16, 56–63. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00780.x
  • Wiese, H., Stahl, J., & Schweinberger, S. R. (2009). Configural processing of other-race faces is delayed but not decreased. Biological Psychology, 81, 103–109. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2009.03.002
  • Wilkinson, D., & Halligan, P. (2004). The relevance of behavioural measures for functional-imaging studies of cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5, 67–73. doi:10.1038/nrn1302
  • Wirth, J. H., Sacco, D. F., Hugenberg, K., & Williams, K. D. (2010). Eye gaze as relational evaluation: Averted eye gaze leads to feelings of ostracism and relational devaluation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 869–882. doi:10.1177/0146167210370032
  • Xu, X., Zuo, X., Wang, X., & Han, S. (2009). Do you feel my pain? Racial group membership modulates empathic neural responses. Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 8525–8529. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2418-09.2009
  • Yin, R. K. (1969). Looking at upside-down faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81, 141–145. doi:10.1037/h0027474
  • Young, A. W., Hellawell, D., & Hay, D. C. (1987). Configurational information in face perception. Perception, 16, 747–759. doi:10.1068/p160747
  • Young, S. G., Slepian, M. L., Wilson, J. P., & Hugenberg, K. (2014). Averted eye-gaze disrupts configural face encoding. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 53, 94–99. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.03.002

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.