798
Views
12
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Defining the aetiology of paediatric community-acquired pneumonia: an unsolved problem

&
Pages 153-161 | Received 29 Sep 2018, Accepted 19 Dec 2018, Published online: 02 Jan 2019

References

  • Walker CLF, Rudan I, Liu L, et al. Global burden of childhood pneumonia and diarrhoea. Lancet. 2013;381:1405–1416.
  • Principi N, Esposito S. Antimicrobial stewardship in paediatrics. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16:424.
  • Harris M, Clark J, Coote N, et al. British thoracic society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in children: update 2011. Thorax. 2011;66(Suppl. 2):ii1–23.
  • Bradley JS, Byington CL, Shah SS, et al. The management of community-acquired pneumonia in infants and children older than 3 months of age: clinical practice guidelines by the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society and the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:e25–76.
  • Esposito S, Cohen R, Domingo JD, et al. Antibiotic therapy for pediatric community-acquired pneumonia: do we know when, what and for how long to treat? Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31:e78–85.
  • Murphy TF, Henderson FW, Clyde WA Jr., et al. Pneumonia: an eleven-year study in a pediatric practice. Am J Epidemiol. 1981;113:12–21.
  • Jartti T, Söderlund-Venermo M, Hedman K, et al. New molecular virus detection methods and their clinical value in lower respiratory tract infections in children. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2013;14:38–45.
  • Principi N, Esposito S. Prevention of community-acquired pneumonia with available pneumococcal vaccines. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;18:30.
  • Nelson JC, Jackson M, Yu O. Impact of the introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on rates of community acquired pneumonia in children and adults. Vaccine. 2008;26:4947–4954.
  • Griffin MR, Zhu Y, Moore MR, et al. U.S. hospitalizations for pneumonia after a decade of pneumococcal vaccination. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:155–163.
  • MacNeil JR, Cohn AC, Farley M. Current epidemiology and trends in invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease – United States, 1989–2008. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:1230–1236.
  • Gessner BD, Adegbola RA. The impact of vaccines on pneumonia: key lessons from Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccines. Vaccine. 2008;26(Suppl 2):B3–8.
  • Hodinka RL. Point: is the era of viral culture over in the clinical microbiology laboratory? J Clin Microbiol. 2013;51:2–4.
  • McCracken GH Jr. Etiology and treatment of pneumonia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19:373–377.
  • Honkinen M, Lahti E, Österback R, et al. Viruses and bacteria in sputum samples of children with community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2012;18:300–307.
  • Pavia AT. Viral infections of the lower respiratory tract: old viruses, new viruses, and the role of diagnosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(Suppl. 4):S284–9.
  • Chibuk TK, Robinson JL, Hartfield DS. Pediatric complicated pneumonia and pneumococcal serotype replacement: trends in hospitalized children pre and post introduction of routine vaccination with Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV7). Eur J Pediatr. 2010;169:1123–1128.
  • Jain S, Williams DJ, Arnold SR, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization among U.S. children. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:835–845.
  • Howie SRC, Morris GAJ, Tokarz R, et al. Etiology of severe childhood pneumonia in The Gambia, West Africa, determined by conventional and molecular microbiological analyses of lung and pleural aspirate samples. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:682–685.
  • Johnson AWB, Osinusi K, Aderele WI, et al. Etiologic agents and outcome determinants of community-acquired pneumonia in urban children: a hospital-based study. J Natl Med A. 2008;100:370–385.
  • Mathew JL, Singhi S, Ray P, et al. Etiology of community acquired pneumonia among children in India: prospective, cohort study. J Glob Health. 2015;5:050418.
  • Elemraid MA, Sails AD, Eltringham GJA, et al. Aetiology of paediatric pneumonia after the introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. Eur Respir J. 2013;42:1595–1603.
  • Esposito S, Marchese A, Tozzi AE, et al. Bacteremic pneumococcal community-acquired pneumonia in children less than 5 years of age in Italy. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31:705–710.
  • Principi N, Esposito S, Blasi F, et al. Role of Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in children with community-acquired lower respiratory tract infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:1281–1289.
  • Rodrigues CMC, Groves H. Community-acquired pneumonia in children: the challenges of microbiological diagnosis. J Clin Microbiol. 2018;56:e01318–17.
  • Hooven TA, Polin RA. Pneumonia. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2017;22:206–213.
  • Self WH, Williams DJ, Zhu Y, et al. Respiratory viral detection in children and adults: comparing asymptomatic controls and patients with community-acquired pneumonia. J Infect Dis. 2016;213:584–591.
  • Manikam L, Lakhanpaul M. Epidemiology of community acquired pneumonia. Paediatr Child Health. 2012;22:299–306.
  • Prayle A, Atkinson M, Smyth A. Pneumonia in the developed world. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2011;12:60–69.
  • Cilla G, Oñate E, Perez-Yarza EG, et al. Viruses in community-acquired pneumonia in children aged less than 3 years old: high rate of viral coinfection. J Med Virol. 2008;80:1843–1849.
  • Juvén T, Mertsola J, Waris M, et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in 254 hospitalized children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19:293–298.
  • Rhedin S, Lindstrand A, Hjelmgren A, et al. Respiratory viruses associated with community-acquired pneumonia in children: matched case-control study. Thorax. 2015;70:847–853.
  • Esposito S, Daleno C, Prunotto G, et al. Impact of viral infections in children with community-acquired pneumonia: results of a study of 17 respiratory viruses. Influenza Other Respir Viruses. 2013;7:18–26.
  • Tsolia MN, Psarras S, Bossios A, et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized school-age children: evidence for high prevalence of viral infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:681–686.
  • Nascimento-Carvalho CM, Ribeiro CT, Cardoso MR, et al. The role of respiratory viral infections among children hospitalized for community-acquired pneumonia in a developing country. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008;27:939–941.
  • Cevey-Macherel M, Galetto-Lacour A, Gervaix A, et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized children based on WHO clinical guidelines. Eur J Pediatr. 2009;168:1429–1436.
  • Hamano-Hasegawa K, Morozumi M, Nakayama E, et al. Comprehensive detection of causative pathogens using real-time PCR to diagnose pediatric community-acquired pneumonia. J Infect Chemother. 2008;14:424–432.
  • O’Callaghan-Gordo C, Bassat Q, Morais L, et al. Etiology and epidemiology of viral pneumonia among hospitalized children in rural Mozambique: a malaria endemic area with high prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30:39–44.
  • Samransamruajkit R, Hiranrat T, Chieochansin T, et al. Prevalence, clinical presentations and complications among hospitalized children with influenza pneumonia. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2008;61:446–449.
  • Wolf DG, Greenberg D, Shemer-Avni Y, et al. Association of human metapneumovirus with radiologically diagnosed community-acquired alveolar pneumonia in young children. J Pediatr. 2010;156:115–120.
  • Esposito S, Zampiero A, Ruggiero L, et al. Enterovirus D68-associated community-acquired pneumonia in children living in Milan, Italy. J Clin Virol. 2015;68:94–96.
  • Xiang Z, Gonzalez R, Xie Z, et al. Human rhinovirus C infections mirror those of human rhinovirus A in children with community-acquired pneumonia. J Clin Virol. 2010;49:94–99.
  • Esposito S, Zampiero A, Terranova L, et al. Pneumococcal bacterial load colonization as a marker of mixed infection in children with alveolar community-acquired pneumonia and respiratory syncytial virus or rhinovirus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013;32:1199–1204.
  • Shann F, Hart K, Thomas D. Acute lower respiratory tract infections in children: possible criteria for selection of patients for antibiotic therapy and hospital admission. Bull World Health Organ. 1984;62:749–753.
  • Cherian T, John TJ, Simoes E, et al. Evaluation of simple clinical signs for the diagnosis of acute lower respiratory tract infection. Lancet. 1988;2:125–128.
  • Mulholland EK, Simoes EA, Costales MO, et al. Standardized diagnosis of pneumonia in developing countries. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1992;11:77–81.
  • Redd SC, Patrick E, Vreuls R, et al. Comparison of the clinical and radiographic diagnosis of paediatric pneumonia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1994;88:307–310.
  • Harari M, Shann F, Spooner V, et al. Clinical signs of pneumonia in children. Lancet. 1991;338:928–930.
  • World Health Organization. Revised WHO classification and treatment of childhood pneumonia at health facilities. Evidence Summaries. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/137319/9789241507813_eng.pdf?sequence=1. Accessed on September 5, 2018.
  • Shah S, Bachur R, Kim D, et al. Lack of predictive value of tachypnea in the diagnosis of pneumonia in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010;29:406–409.
  • Rambaud-Althaus C, Althaus F, Genton B, et al. Clinical features for diagnosis of pneumonia in children younger than 5 years: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15:439–450.
  • Shah SN, Bachur RG, Simel DL, et al. Does this child have pneumonia? The rational clinical examination systematic review. JAMA. 2017;318:462–471.
  • Cherian T, Mulholland EK, Carlin JB, et al. Standardized interpretation of paediatric chest radiographs for the diagnosis of pneumonia in epidemiological studies. Bull World Health Organ. 2005;83:353–359.
  • Brenner DJ. What we know and what we don’t know about cancer risks associated with radiation doses from radiological imaging. Br J Radiol. 2014;87:20130629.
  • Chotas HG, Ravin CE. Chest radiography: estimated lung volume and projected area obscured by the heart, mediastinum, and diaphragm. Radiology. 1994;193:403–404.
  • Mulholland EK, Simoes EA, Costales MO, et al. Standardized diagnosis of pneumonia in developing countries. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1992;11:77–81.
  • Zhan C, Grundtvig N, Klug BH. Performance of bedside lung ultrasound by a pediatric resident: a useful diagnostic tool in children with suspected pneumonia. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2018;34:618–622.
  • Claes AS, Clapuyt P, Menten R, et al. Performance of chest ultrasound in pediatric pneumonia. Eur J Radiol. 2017;88:82–87.
  • Yilmaz HL, Özkaya AK, Sarı Gökay S, et al. Point-of-care lung ultrasound in children with community acquired pneumonia. Am J Emerg Med. 2017;35:964–969.
  • Don M. Lung ultrasound for pediatric community-acquired pneumonia: a focused update. Pediatr Neonatol. 2015;56:280–281.
  • Iorio G, Capasso M, De Luca G, et al. Lung ultrasound in the diagnosis of pneumonia in children: proposal for a new diagnostic algorithm. Peer J. 2015;3:e1374.
  • Principi N, Esposito A, Giannitto C, et al. Lung ultrasonography to diagnose community-acquired pneumonia in children. BMC Pulm Med. 2017;17:212.
  • Pereda MA, Chavez MA, Hooper-Miele CC, et al. Lung ultrasound for the diagnosis of pneumonia in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2015;135:714–722.
  • Sperandeo M, Varriale A, Sperandeo G, et al. Assessment of ultrasound acoustic artifacts in patients with acute dyspnea: a multicenter study. Acta Radiol. 2012;53:885–892.
  • Lichtenstein DA, Meziere GA. Relevance of lung ultrasound in the diagnosis of acute respiratory failure: the BLUE protocol. Chest. 2008;134:117–125.
  • Blaschke AJ, Heyrend C, Byington CL, et al. Molecular analysis improves pathogen identification and epidemiologic study of pediatric parapneumonic empyema. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30:289–294.
  • Bogaert D, De Groot R, Hermans PWM. Streptococcus pneumoniae colonisation: the key to pneumococcal disease. Lancet Infect Dis. 2004;4:144–154.
  • Adegbola RA, DeAntonio R, Hill PC, et al. Carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae and other respiratory bacterial pathogens in low and lower-middle income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2014;9:e103293.
  • Marchisio P, Esposito S, Schito GC, et al. Nasopharyngeal carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae in healthy children: implications for the use of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:479–484.
  • Esposito S, Terranova L, Ruggiero L, et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus carriage in healthy school-age children and adolescents. J Med Microbiol. 2015;64:427–431.
  • Principi N, Iughetti L, Cappa M, et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae oropharyngeal colonization in school-age children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus: impact of the heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2016;12:293–300.
  • Esposito S, Terranova L, Patria MF, et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae colonisation in children and adolescents with asthma: impact of the heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine and evaluation of potential effect of thirteen-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. BMC Infect Dis. 2016;16:12.
  • Principi N, Preti V, Gaspari S, et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae pharyngeal colonization in school-age children and adolescents with cancer. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2016;12:301–307.
  • Esposito S, Colombo C, Tosco A, et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae oropharyngeal colonization in children and adolescents with cystic fibrosis. J Cyst Fibros. 2016;15:366–371.
  • Spuesens EB, Fraaij PL, Visser EG, et al. Carriage of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in the upper respiratory tract of symptomatic and asymptomatic children: an observational study. PLoS Med. 2013;10:e1001444.
  • Wood PR, Hill VL, Burks ML, et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae in children with acute and refractory asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2013;110:328–334.
  • Spichak TV, Yatsyshina SB, Кatosova L, et al. Is the role of rhinoviruses as causative agents of pediatric community-acquired pneumonia over-estimated? Eur J Pediatr. 2016;175:1951–1958.
  • Midulla F, Scagnolari C, Bonci E, et al. Respiratory syncytial virus, human bocavirus and rhinovirus bronchiolitis in infants. Arch Dis Child. 2010;95:35–41.
  • Pavia AT. What is the role of respiratory viruses in community-acquired pneumonia? What is the best therapy for influenza and other viral causes of community-acquired pneumonia? Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2013;27:157–175.
  • Daleno C, Piralla A, Scala A, et al. Phylogenetic analysis of human rhinovirus isolates collected from otherwise healthy children with community-acquired pneumonia during five successive years. PLoS One. 2013;8:e80614.
  • Lu X, Schneider E, Jain S, et al. Rhinovirus viremia in patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. J Infect Dis. 2017;216:1104–1111.
  • Cvitkovic Spik V, Beovic B, Pokorn M, et al. Improvement of pneumococcal pneumonia diagnostics by the use of rt-PCR on plasma and respiratory samples. Scand J Infect Dis. 2013;45:731–737.
  • Esposito S, Scala A, Tagliabue C, et al. Evaluation of a multiplex real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of influenza and respiratory syncytial viruses. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2016;84:40–42.
  • Esposito S, Scala A, Bianchini S, et al. Partial comparison of the NxTAG respiratory pathogen panel assay with the luminex xTAG respiratory panel fast assay V2 and singleplex real-time polymerase chain reaction for detection of respiratory pathogens. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2016;86:53–57.
  • Esposito S, Marchisio P, Morelli P, et al. Effect of a rapid influenza diagnosis. Arch Dis Child. 2003;88:525–526.
  • Korppi M, Kiekara O, Heiskanen-Kosma T, et al. Comparison of radiological findings and microbial aetiology of childhood pneumonia. Acta Paediatr. 1993;82:360–363.
  • Principi N, Esposito S. Biomarkers in pediatric community-acquired pneumonia. Int J Mol Sci. 2017;18:447.
  • Toikka P, Irjala K, Juvén T, et al. Serum procalcitonin, C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 for distinguishing bacterial and viral pneumonia in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19:598–602.
  • Moulin F, Raymond J, Lorrot M, et al. Procalcitonin in children admitted to hospital with community acquired pneumonia. Arch Dis Child. 2001;84:332–336.
  • Esposito S, Tagliabue C, Picciolli I, et al. Procalcitonin measurements for guiding antibiotic treatment in pediatric pneumonia. Respir Med. 2011;105:1939–1945.
  • Esposito S, Bianchini S, Gambino M, et al. Measurement of lipocalin-2 and syndecan-4 levels to differentiate bacterial from viral infection in children with community-acquired pneumonia. BMC Pulm Med. 2016;16:103.
  • Esposito S, Di Gangi M, Cardinale F, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1, midregional proatrial natriuretic peptide and midregional proadrenomedullin for distinguishing etiology and to assess severity in community-acquired pneumonia. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0163262.
  • Engelmann I, Dubos F, Lobert PE, et al. Diagnosis of viral infections using myxovirus resistance protein A (MxA). Pediatrics. 2015;135:e985–93.
  • Ramilo O, Mejias A, Mahajan P, et al. RNA signature test to distinguish bacterial from viral infection. J Pediatr. 2017;182:401–404.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.