322
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

The role of the pediatrician in caring for children with tracheobronchomalacia

, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, & ORCID Icon
Pages 679-689 | Received 23 Jan 2020, Accepted 30 Mar 2020, Published online: 21 Apr 2020

References

  • Hofhuis W. Bronchodilation in infants with malacia or recurrent wheeze. Arch Dis Child. 2003 Mar 1;88(3):246–249.
  • Choi S, Lawlor C, Rahbar R, et al. Diagnosis, classification, and management of pediatric tracheobronchomalacia: a review. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2019 Mar 1;145(3):265.
  • Duncan S, Eid N. Tracheomalacia and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1991 Oct 1;100(10):856–858.
  • Boogaard R, Huijsmans SH, Pijnenburg MWH, et al. Tracheomalacia and bronchomalacia in children. Chest. 2005 Nov;128(5):3391–3397.
  • Shaffer TH, Cullen AB, Wolfson MR. Clinical assessment of airway function in health and disease. NeoReviews. 2002 Jul 1;3(7):e131.
  • Goyal V, Masters IB, Chang AB. Interventions for primary (intrinsic) tracheomalacia in children. Cochrane Airways Group, editor. Cochrane database of systematic reviews. Internet. 2012 Oct 17.
  • Benjamin B. Tracheomalacia in infants and children. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1984 Sep 1;93(5):438–442.
  • Masters IB, Chang AB, Patterson L, et al. Series of laryngomalacia, tracheomalacia, and bronchomalacia disorders and their associations with other conditions in children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2002 Sep 1;34(3):189–195.
  • Carden KA, Boiselle PM, Waltz DA, et al. Tracheomalacia and tracheobronchomalacia in children and adults. Chest. 2005 Mar;127(3):984–1005.
  • Murgu SD, Egressy K, Laxmanan B, et al. Central airway obstruction. Chest. 2016 Aug;150(2):426–441.
  • Wallis C, Alexopoulou E, Antón-Pacheco JL, et al. ERS statement on tracheomalacia and bronchomalacia in children. Eur Respir J. 2019 Sep;54(3):1900382.
  • Hysinger EB. Laryngomalacia, Tracheomalacia and Bronchomalacia.. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care. 2018 Apr;48(4):113–118.
  • Nikolić MZ, Sun D, Rawlins EL. Human lung development: recent progress and new challenges. Development. 2018 Aug 15;145(16):dev163485.
  • Amin RS, Rutter MJ. Airway disease and management in bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Clin Perinatol. 2015 Dec;42(4):857–870.
  • Shah R, Varjavandi V, Krishnan U. Predictive factors for complications in children with esophageal atresia and tracheoesophageal fistula: complications in esophageal atresia. Dis Esophagus. 2015 Apr;28(3):216–223.
  • Mair EA, Parsons DS. Pediatric tracheobronchomalacia and major airway collapse. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1992 Apr 1;101(4):300–309.
  • Baraldi E, Donegà S, Carraro S, et al. Tracheobronchomalacia in wheezing young children poorly responsive to asthma therapy. Allergy. 2010 Aug 1;65(8):1064–1065.
  • Hysinger EB, Panitch HB. Paediatric tracheomalacia. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2016 Jan;17:9–15.
  • Deacon JWF, Widger J, Soma MA. Paediatric tracheomalacia - A review of clinical features and comparison of diagnostic imaging techniques. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2017 Jul;1(98):75–81.
  • Jacobs IN, Wetmore RF, Tom LWC, et al. Tracheobronchomalacia in children. Arch Otolaryngology Head Neck Surg. 1994 Feb 1;120(2):154–158.
  • Hysinger EB, Friedman NL, Padula MA, et al. Tracheobronchomalacia is associated with increased morbidity in bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Ann ATS. 2017 Jun 16;14(9):1428–1435.
  • Weinberger M, Abu-Hasan M. Pseudo-asthma: when cough, wheezing, and dyspnea are not asthma. Pediatrics. 2007 Oct 1;120(4):855.
  • Chang BA, Gaffney JT, Eastburn MM, et al. Cough quality in children: a comparison of subjective vs. Bronchoscopic Findings Respir Res. 2005 Jan 8;6(1):3.
  • Rohde M, Banner J, Byard RW. Congenital lesions associated with airway narrowing, respiratory distress, and unexpected infant and early childhood death. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2005 Jun 1;1(2):91–96.
  • Goyal V, Masters IB, Chang AB. Interventions for primary (intrinsic) tracheomalacia in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev.2012 Oct 17;10:CD005304.
  • Masters IB, Chang AB. Tracheobronchomalacia in children. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2009 Aug 1;3(4):425–439.
  • Finder JD. Primary bronchomalacia in infants and children. J Pediatr. 1997 Jan 1;130(1):59–66.
  • van Aalderen WM. Childhood asthma: diagnosis and treatment. Scientifica (Cairo). 2012;2012:674204.
  • Javia L, Harris MA, Fuller S. Rings, slings, and other tracheal disorders in the neonate. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2016 Aug 1;21(4):277–284.
  • Fraga JC, Jennings RW, Kim PCW. Pediatric tracheomalacia. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2016 Jun;25(3):156–164.
  • Sotomayor JL, Godinez RI, Borden S, et al. Large-Airway Collapse due to Acquired Tracheobronchomalacia in Infancy. Am J Dis Children. 1986 Apr 1;140(4):367–371.
  • Bibi H, Khvolis E, Shoseyov D, et al. The prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux in children with tracheomalacia and laryngomalacia. CHEST. 2001 Feb 1;119(2):409–413.
  • Sarvananthan R. GORD in infants and children. BMJ Clin Evid. 2015 Jul;24(2015):0310.
  • Shepard J-AO, Flores EJ, Abbott GF Imaging of the trachea. Annals of Cardiothoracic Surgery; Vol 7, No 2 (March 2018): Tracheal Surgery [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2018 Jan 1]; Available from: http://www.annalscts.com/article/view/16460
  • Berrocal T, Madrid C, Novo S, et al. Congenital anomalies of the tracheobronchial tree, lung, and mediastinum: embryology, radiology, and pathology. RadioGraphics. 2004 Jan 1;24(1):e17–e17.
  • Berg E, Naseri I, Sobol SE. The role of airway fluoroscopy in the evaluation of children with stridor. Arch Otolaryngology Head Neck Surg. 2008 Apr 1;134(4):415–418.
  • Mok Q. Airway problems in neonates-a review of the current investigation and management strategies. Front Pediatr. 2017 Mar;30(5):60.
  • Manimtim WM, Rivard DC, Sherman AK, et al. Tracheobronchomalacia diagnosed by tracheobronchography in ventilator-dependent infants. Pediatr Radiol. 2016 Dec 1;46(13):1813–1821.
  • Andronikou S, Chopra M, Langton-Hewer S, et al. Technique, pitfalls, quality, radiation dose and findings of dynamic 4-dimensional computed tomography for airway imaging in infants and children. Pediatr Radiol. 2019 May;49(5):678–686.
  • Douros K, Kremmydas G, Grammeniatis V, et al. Helical multi‐detector CT scan as a tool for diagnosing tracheomalacia in children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2019 Jan;54(1):47–52.
  • Ciet P, Wielopolski P, Manniesing R, et al. Spirometer-controlled cine magnetic resonance imaging used to diagnose tracheobronchomalacia in paediatric patients. Eur Respir J. 2014 Jan 1;43(1):115–124.
  • Faust RA, Remley KB, Rimell FL. Real-time, cine magnetic resonance imaging for evaluation of the pediatric airway. Laryngoscope. 2001 Dec 1;111(12):2187–2190.
  • Su SC, Masters IB, Buntain H, et al. A comparison of virtual bronchoscopy versus flexible bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of tracheobronchomalacia in children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2017 Apr 1;52(4):480–486.
  • Majid A, Gaurav K, Sanchez JM, et al. Evaluation of tracheobronchomalacia by dynamic flexible bronchoscopy. a pilot study. Ann ATS. 2014 Jun 24;11(6):951–955.
  • Sanchez MO, Greer MC, Masters IB, et al. A comparison of fluoroscopic airway screening with flexible bronchoscopy for diagnosing tracheomalacia. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2012 Jan 1;47(1):63–67.
  • Kugler C, Stanzel F. Tracheomalacia. Thorac Surg Clin. 2014 Feb 1;24(1):51–58.
  • Snijders D, Barbato A. An update on diagnosis of tracheomalacia in children. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 2015 Aug 31;25(4):333–335.
  • Asai T, Shingu K. Airway obstruction in a child with asymptomatic tracheobronchomalacia. Can J Anaesth. 2001 Jul 1;48(7):684.
  • Okuda Y, Sato H, Kitajima T, et al. Airway obstruction during general anaesthesia in a child with congenital tracheomalacia. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2000;17:10.
  • Moore P, Smith H, Greer RM, et al. Pulmonary function and long-term follow-up of children with tracheobronchomalacia. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2012 Jul;47(7):700–705.
  • Davis S, Jones M, Kisling J, et al. Effect of continuous positive airway pressure on forced expiratory flows in infants with tracheomalacia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 Jul;158(1):148–152.
  • Uchida DA. Late presentation of double aortic arch in school-age children presumed to have asthma: the benefits of spirometry and examination of the flow-volume curve. Respir Care. 2009 Oct 1;54(10):1402.
  • van der Wiel EC, Hofhuis W, Holland WPJ, et al. Predictive value of infant lung function testing for airway malacia. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2005 Nov 1;40(5):431–436.
  • Baraldi E, Donegà S, Carraro S, et al. Tracheobronchomalacia in wheezing young children poorly responsive to asthma therapy: ALLERGYNet. Allergy. 2009 Dec 17; 65(8):1064–1065.
  • Masters IB, Zimmerman PV, Chang AB. Longitudinal quantification of growth and changes in primary tracheobronchomalacia sites in children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2007 Oct;42(10):906–913.
  • Masters IB. Congenital airway lesions and lung disease. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2009 Feb;56(1):227–242.
  • Panitch HB, Keklikian EN, Motley RA, et al. Effect of altering smooth muscle tone on maximal expiratory flows in patients with tracheomalacia. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1990;9(3):170–176.
  • Gallagher T, Maturo S, Fracchia S, et al. An analysis of children with tracheomalacia treated with ipratropium bromide (atrovent). Laryngoscope. 2011;121(S4):S211–S211.
  • Bass R, Santiago M, Smith L, et al. Bethanechol in tracheomalacia: two case series and a review of the literature. Pediatr Allergy Immunol Pulmonol. 2018 Sep;31(3):180–183.
  • Quinlan C, Santiago M, Smith L, et al. The effects of bethanechol on patients with tracheomalacia. In: B52 NEONATAL LUNG DISEASE: FROM BENCH TO BABIES [Internet]. Am Thorac Soc. cited 2020 Jan 3]. p. A3843–A3843. (American Thoracic Society International Conference Abstracts). Available from. https://doi.10.1164/ajrccm-conference.2016.193.1_MeetingAbstracts.A3843
  • Boogaard R, de Jongste JC, Vaessen-Verberne AAPH, et al. Recombinant human DNase in children with airway malacia and lower respiratory tract infection. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2009 Oct;44(10):962–969.
  • Rogers DF, Rubin BK. Mucolytics for COPD. In: Stockley RA, Rennard S, Rabe K, editors. Chronic obstructive lung disease. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing; 2006. p. 756–768.
  • Kantar A, Chang AB, Shields MD, et al. ERS statement on protracted bacterial bronchitis in children. Eur Respir J. 2017 Aug;50(2):1602139.
  • Zgherea D, Pagala S, Mendiratta M, et al. Bronchoscopic findings in children with chronic wet cough. Pediatrics. 2012 Feb 1;129(2):e364.
  • Santiago-Burruchaga M, Zalacain-Jorge R, Vazquez-Cordero C. Are airways structural abnormalities more frequent in children with recurrent lower respiratory tract infections? Respir Med. 2014 May 1;108(5):800–805.
  • Kompare M, Weinberger M. Protracted bacterial bronchitis in young children: association with airway malacia. J Pediatr. 2012 Jan;160(1):88–92.
  • Onakpoya I, Hayward G, Heneghan C Antibiotics for preventing lower respiratory tract infections in high‐risk children aged 12 years and under. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews [Internet]. 2015;(9). Available from: https://doi.org//10.1002/14651858.CD011530.pub2
  • Southern KW, Barker PM. Azithromycin for cystic fibrosis. Eur Respir J. 2004 Nov 1;24(5):834.
  • Pizzutto SJ, Hare KM, Upham JW. Bronchiectasis in children: current concepts in immunology and microbiology. Front Pediatr. 2017 May;29(5):123.
  • Masekela R, Green RJ. The role of macrolides in childhood non-cystic fibrosis-related bronchiectasis. Mediators Inflamm. 2012;2012:134605.
  • Bush A, Bhatt J, Grigg J. E cigarettes: tar wars: the (tobacco) empire strikes back. Arch Dis Child. 2019 Nov;104(11):1027–1039.
  • Bush A, Bhatt JM, Connett GJ, et al. A public health emergency among young people [Internet]. Lancet Respir Med. 2019 Dec 27. cited; Available from. . DOI:10.1016/S2213-2600(19)30468-0
  • Lødrup Carlsen KC, Skjerven HO, Carlsen K-H. The toxicity of E-cigarettes and children’s respiratory health. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2018 Sep;1(28):63–67.
  • Ingham T, Keall M, Jones B, et al. Damp mouldy housing and early childhood hospital admissions for acute respiratory infection: a case control study. Thorax. 2019 Sep;74(9):849–857.
  • Laberge J-M, Puligandla P. Chapter 64 - Congenital malformations of the lungs and airways. In: Taussig LM, Landau LI, editors. Pediatric respiratory medicine [Internet]. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Mosby; 2008. p. 907–941. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323040488500682
  • Sirithangkul S, Ranganathan S, Robinson PJ, et al. Positive Expiratory pressure to enhance cough effectiveness in tracheomalacia. J Med Assoc Thai. 2010;93(6):S112–S118.
  • Ferguson GT, Benoist J. Nasal continuous positive airway pressure in the treatment of tracheobronchomalacia. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993 Feb 1;147(2):457–461.
  • Essouri S, Nicot F, Clément A, et al. Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in infants with upper airway obstruction: comparison of continuous and bilevel positive pressure. Intensive Care Med. 2005 Apr 1;31(4):574–580.
  • Panitch HB, Allen JL, Alpert BE, et al. Effects of CPAP on lung mechanics in infants with acquired tracheobronchomalacia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994 Nov 1;150(5):1341–1346.
  • Jacobs IN, Teague WG, Bland JW. Pulmonary vascular complications of chronic airway obstruction in children. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1997 Jul 1;123(7):700–704.
  • Fayon M, Donato L. Tracheomalacia (TM) or bronchomalacia (BM) in children: conservative or invasive therapy. Arch Pediatr. 2010 Jan 1;17(1):97–104.
  • Naime S, Batra SK, Fiorillo C, et al. Aerodigestive approach to chronic cough in children. Curr Treat Options Peds. 2018 Dec;4(4):467–479.
  • Rosen R, Vandenplas Y, Singendonk M, et al. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American society for pediatric gastroenterology, hepatology, and nutrition and the European Society for pediatric gastroenterology, hepatology, and nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2018;66(3):516–554.
  • National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guideline. Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in children and young people [Internet]. United Kingdom; 2015 [cited 2020 Mar 17]. Available from https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng1
  • Hill CA, Ramakrishna J, Fracchia MS, et al. Prevalence of eosinophilic esophagitis in children with refractory aerodigestive symptoms. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2013 Sep 1;139(9):903.
  • Dhaliwal J, Tobias V, Sugo E, et al. Eosinophilic esophagitis in children with esophageal atresia. Dis Esophagus. 2014 May;27(4):340–347.
  • Krishnan U, Lijuan C, Andrew GJ, et al. Analysis of eosinophilic esophagitis in children with repaired congenital esophageal atresia. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2019 Apr 1;143(4):1455–1464.e2.
  • Greifer M, Santiago MT, Tsirilakis K, et al. Pediatric patients with chronic cough and recurrent croup: the case for a multidisciplinary approach. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2015 May;79(5):749–752.
  • Antón-Pacheco J, García-Hernández G, Villafruela M. The management of tracheobronchial obstruction in children. Minerva Pediatr. 2009 Mar;1(61):39–52.
  • Monnier P, Bernath M-A, Chollet-Rivier M, et al. Pediatric airway surgery: management of laryngotracheal stenosis in infants and children.Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. 2011;325–336.
  • Shieh HF, Smithers CJ, Hamilton TE, et al. Posterior tracheopexy for severe tracheomalacia. J Pediatr Surg. 2017 Jun 1;52(6):951–955.
  • Montgomery J, Sau C, Clement W, et al. Treatment of tracheomalacia with aortopexy in children in Glasgow. EurJ Pediatr Surg. 2014 Oct;24(5):389–393.
  • Torre M, Carlucci M, Speggiorin S, et al. Aortopexy for the treatment of tracheomalacia in children: review of the literature. Ital J Pediatr. 2012;38(1):62.
  • van der Zee DC, Straver M. Thoracoscopic aortopexy for tracheomalacia. World J Surg. 2015 Jan 1;39(1):158–164.
  • Nicolai T. Airway stents in children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2008 Apr 1;43(4):330–344.
  • Wallis C, McLaren CA. Tracheobronchial stenting for airway malacia. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2018 Jun;1(27):48–59.
  • Morrison RJ, Sengupta S, Flanangan CL, et al. Treatment of severe acquired tracheomalacia with a patient-specific, 3D-printed, permanent tracheal splint. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2017 May 1;143(5):523–525.
  • Gorostidi F, Reinhard A, Monnier P, et al. External bioresorbable airway rigidification to treat refractory localized tracheomalacia. Laryngoscope. 2016 Nov 1;126(11):2605–2610.
  • General Medical Council. Good medical practice [Internet]. United Kingdom; 2013 Apr [cited 2019 Dec 23]. Available from: https://www.gmc-uk.org/ethical-guidance/ethical-guidance-for-doctors/good-medical-practice/duties-of-a-doctor
  • Kepreotes E, Keatinge D, Stone T. The experience of parenting children with chronic health conditions: a new reality. J Nurs Healthcare Chronic Illness. 2010 Mar 1;2(1):51–62.
  • Coffey JS. Parenting a child with chronic illness: a metasynthesis. Pediatr Nurs. 2006;32(1):51–59.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.