References
- Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, et al. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(8):727–733.
- CDC. COVID-19 and your health [internet]. centers for disease control and prevention. 2020 [cited 2021 Jul 8]. Available from 2021 Jul 8: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/need-extra-precautions/people-with-medical-conditions.html.
- Sayampanathan AA, Heng CS, Pin PH, et al. Infectivity of asymptomatic versus symptomatic COVID-19. Lancet. 2021;397(10269):93–94.
- Mouliou DS, and Gourgoulianis KI. False-positive and false-negative COVID-19 cases: respiratory prevention and management strategies, vaccination, and further perspectives. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2021;15:1–10.
- Surkova E, Nikolayevskyy V, Drobniewski F. False-positive COVID-19 results: hidden problems and costs. Lancet Respir Med. 2020;8(12):1167–1168.
- Holmes B, Fischer K-D. The frontiers of ancient science: essays in honor of heinrich von staden. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG; 2015. 9783110336337.
- Signs and Symptoms. Wikipedia. 2021.
- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO SYMPTOMATOLOGY [Internet]. [ cited 2021 Jul 8]. Available from: https://chiro.org/ACAPress/Introduction_to_Symptomatology.html.
- Khorramdelazad H, Kazemi MH, and Najafi A, et al. Immunopathological similarities between COVID-19 and influenza: investigating the consequences of Co-infection. Microb Pathog. 2021;152:104554.
- Marineli F, Tsoucalas G, and Karamanou M, et al. (1869–1938) and the history of typhoid fever. Ann Gastroenterol. 2013;26(2):132–134.
- The INSIGHT START Study Group. Initiation of antiretroviral therapy in early asymptomatic HIV infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(9):795–807.
- Abbott RJ, Pachnio A, and Pedroza-Pacheco I, et al. Asymptomatic primary infection with Epstein-Barr virus: observations on young adult cases. Longnecker RM, editor. J Virol [Internet]. 2017 [cited 2021 Jul 8]. 91(21). Available from: https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/JVI.00382-17.
- Plosa EJ, Esbenshade JC, Fuller MP, et al. Cytomegalovirus Infection. Pediatr Rev. 2012;33(4):156–163.
- Mbala P, Baguelin M, Ngay I, et al. Evaluating the frequency of asymptomatic Ebola virus infection. Philos Trans R Soc B. 2017;372:20160303.
- He X, Lau EHY, Wu P, et al. Temporal dynamics in viral shedding and transmissibility of COVID-19. Nat Med. 2020;26(5):672–675.
- Gao Z, Xu Y, Sun C, et al. A systematic review of asymptomatic infections with COVID-19. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2021;54(1):12–16.
- Wolfe ND, Dunavan CP, and Diamond J. Origins of major human infectious diseases. Nature. 2007;447:279–283. Alberts B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; Raff, M.; Roberts, K.; Walter, P. Introduction to Pathogens. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition 2002.
- Alberts B, Johnson A, and Lewis J, et al. Introduction to pathogens. Molecular biology of the cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science, 2002.
- Washington JA Principles of Diagnosis. In: Medical microbiology. Baron S, editor. University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston: Galveston, 1996. 9780963117212.
- Walker DH Principles of diagnosis of infectious diseases. Pathobiology of human disease [internet]. Elsevier; 2014 [cited 2021 Jul 8]. 222–225. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780123864567017135.
- Schneider DS, Ayres JS. Two ways to survive infection: what resistance and tolerance can teach us about treating infectious diseases. Nat Rev Immunol. 2008;8(11):889–895.
- Cunnington AJ. The importance of pathogen load. In: Rall GF, editor. PLoS pathog. 2015;11:e1004563.
- Carruthers VB, Cotter PA, Kumamoto CA. Microbial pathogenesis: mechanisms of infectious disease. Cell Host Microbe. 2007;2(4):214–219.
- Schultz-Cherry S. Microbial pathogenesis: mechanisms of Infectious Disease. Future Microbiol. 2007;2(5):469–472.
- Salamanna F, Maglio M, Landini MP, et al. Body Localization of ACE-2: on the trail of the keyhole of SARS-CoV-2. Front Med. 2020;7:594495.
- Ng JH, Bijol V, Sparks MA, et al. Pathophysiology and pathology of acute kidney injury in patients with COVID-19. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2020;27(5):365–376.
- Tajbakhsh A, Gheibi Hayat SM, Taghizadeh H, et al. COVID-19 and cardiac injury: clinical manifestations, biomarkers, mechanisms, diagnosis, treatment, and follow up. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2021;19(3):345–357.
- Tian D, Ye Q. Hepatic complications of COVID‐19 and its treatment. J Med Virol. 2020;92(10):1818–1824.
- Ghoshal U, Vasanth S, Tejan N. A guide to laboratory diagnosis of Corona Virus Disease-19 for the gastroenterologists. Indian J Gastroenterol. 2020;39(3):236–242.
- CDC. Labs [Internet]. CDC. Labs. 2020 [cited 2021 Jul 8]. Available from 2021 Jul 8: https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/lab/resources/antigen-tests-guidelines.html.
- Braunstein GD, Schwartz L, Hymel P, et al. False positive results with SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR tests and how to evaluate a RT-PCR-positive test for the possibility of a false positive result. J Occup Environ Med. 2021;63(3):e159–e162.
- Roy S. Physicians’ dilemma of false-positive RT-PCR for COVID-19: a case report. SN Compr Clin Med. 2021;3(1):255–258.
- Healy B, Khan A, Metezai H, et al. The impact of false positive COVID-19 results in an area of low prevalence. Clin Med. 2021;21(1):e54–e56.
- Brownstein NC, Chen YA. Predictive values, uncertainty, and interpretation of serology tests for the novel coronavirus. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):5491.
- Liu G, Rusling JF. COVID-19 antibody tests and their limitations. ACS Sens. 2021;6(3):593–612.
- Latiano A, Tavano F, Panza A, et al. False-positive results of SARS-CoV-2 IgM/IgG antibody tests in sera stored before the 2020 pandemic in Italy. Inter J Infect Dis. 2021;104:159–163.
- Ibarrondo FJ, Fulcher JA, Goodman-Meza D, et al. Rapid decay of anti–SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in persons with mild covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(11):1085–1087.
- Chen C, Zhu C, Yan D, et al. The epidemiological and radiographical characteristics of asymptomatic infections with the novel coronavirus (COVID-19): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Inter J Infect Dis. 2021;104:458–464.
- Kotsiou OS, Pantazopoulos I, Papagiannis D, et al. Repeated antigen-based rapid diagnostic testing for estimating the coronavirus disease 2019 prevalence from the perspective of the workers’ vulnerability before and during the lockdown. IJERPH. 2021;18(4):1638.
- Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet. 2020;395(10223):507–513.
- Mouliou DS, Pantazopoulos I, Gourgoulianis KI. Societal Criticism towards COVID-19: assessing the theory of self-diagnosis contrasted to medical diagnosis. Diagnostics. 2021;11(10):1777.
- Chaimayo C, Kaewnaphan B, Tanlieng N, et al. Rapid SARS-CoV-2 antigen detection assay in comparison with real-time RT-PCR assay for laboratory diagnosis of COVID-19 in Thailand. Virol J. 2020;17(1):177.
- Wang P. Combination of serological total antibody and RT-PCR test for detection of SARS-COV-2 infections. J Virol Methods. 2020;283:113919.
- Peng J, Liu Z-Y, and Yu X-J, et al. Antibody response in COVID-19 patients with and without re-positive RT-PCR results during the convalescent phase. Arch Virol [Internet]. 2021 [cited 2021 Jul 8]; Available from 2021 Jul 8: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00705-021-05132-9.
- Ali RMM, Ghonimy MBI. Radiological findings spectrum of asymptomatic coronavirus (COVID-19) patients. Egyptian Journal of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine. 2020;51(1):156
- Hung IF-N, Cheng V-C-C, Li X, et al. SARS-CoV-2 shedding and seroconversion among passengers quarantined after disembarking a cruise ship: a case series. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020;20(9):1051–1060. **the most accurate strategy to detect COVID-19 asymptomatic patients.
- Cherry JD, Krogstad PSARS. The First Pandemic of the 21 St Century. Pediatr Res. 2004;56:1–5.
- Milne-Price S, Miazgowicz KL, Munster VJ. The emergence of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Pathogens Disease. 2014;71(2):121–136
- Green WR, Cell-Mediated Immunity, Pier GB, Lyczak JB, and Wetzler LM. editors. Immunology, infection, and immunity [internet]. 2015;Washington DC:ASM Press. [cited 2021 Jul 8]. 371–398. Available from. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1128/9781555816148.ch16
- Jr CAJ, Travers P, and Walport M, et al. Immunobiology. 5th edition. Garland Science, 2001.
- Wang X, Gui J. Cell-mediated immunity to SARS-CoV-2. Pediatric Investigation. 2020;4(4):281–291
- Siracusano G, Pastori C, Lopalco L. Humoral immune responses in COVID-19 patients: a window on the state of the art. Front Immunol. 2020;11:1049.
- Zhu Z, Lian X, Su X, et al. From SARS and MERS to COVID-19: a brief summary and comparison of severe acute respiratory infections caused by three highly pathogenic human coronaviruses. Respir Res. 2020;21(1):224.
- Yaqinuddin A. Cross-immunity between respiratory coronaviruses may limit COVID-19 fatalities. Med Hypotheses. 2020;144:110049.
- Reche PA. Potential cross-reactive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 from common human pathogens and vaccines. Front Immunol. 2020;11:586984.
- Dakal TC. Antigenic sites in SARS-CoV-2 spike RBD show molecular similarity with pathogenic antigenic determinants and harbors peptides for vaccine development. Immunobiology. 2021;226(5):152091. *a precise paper revealing pathogens with molecular similarity to SARS-CoV-2.
- Christen U. Pathogen infection and autoimmune disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2019;195(1):10–14.
- Ercolini AM, Miller SD. The role of infections in autoimmune disease. Clin Exp Immunol. 2009;155(1):1–15.
- Khamsi R. Rogue antibodies could be driving severe COVID-19. Nature. 2021;590(7844):29–31.
- Liu Y, Sawalha AH, Lu Q. COVID-19 and autoimmune diseases. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2021;33(2):155–162.
- Ambrosioni J, Blanco JL, Reyes-Urueña JM, et al. Overview of SARS-CoV-2 infection in adults living with HIV. Lancet HIV. 2021;8(5):e294–e305.
- Nakra N, Blumberg D, Herrera-Guerra A, et al. Multi-System Inflammatory Syndrome in Children (MIS-C) following SARS-CoV-2 infection: review of clinical presentation, hypothetical pathogenesis, and proposed management. Children. 2020;7(7):69.
- Consiglio CR, Cotugno N, Sardh F, et al. The immunology of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children with COVID-19. Cell. 2020;183(4):968–981.e7.
- Gemmati D, Bramanti B, Serino ML, et al. COVID-19 and individual genetic susceptibility/receptivity: role of ACE1/ACE2 genes, immunity, inflammation and coagulation. might the double X-chromosome in females be protective against SARS-CoV-2 compared to the single X-chromosome in males? IJMS. 2020;21(10):3474.
- Li Y, Jerkic M, Slutsky AS, et al. Molecular mechanisms of sex bias differences in COVID-19 mortality. Crit Care. 2020;24(1):405.
- Viveiros A, Rasmuson J, Vu J, et al. Sex differences in COVID-19: candidate pathways, genetics of ACE2, and sex hormones. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2021;320(1):H296–H304.
- Ray JG, Schull MJ, Vermeulen MJ, et al. Association between ABO and Rh blood groups and SARS-CoV-2 infection or severe COVID-19 illness: a population-based cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2021;174(3):308–315.
- Zietz M, Zucker J, Tatonetti NP. Associations between blood type and COVID-19 infection, intubation, and death. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):5761.
- Langton DJ, Bourke SC, Lie BA, et al. The influence of HLA genotype on the severity of COVID-19 infection. HLA. 2021;98(1):14–22.
- Mouliou DS, Kotsiou OS, Gourgoulianis KI. Estimates of COVID-19 risk factors among social strata and predictors for a vulnerability to the infection. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(16):8701.
- Cevik M, Tate M, Lloyd O, et al. SARS-CoV-2, SARS-CoV, and MERS-CoV viral load dynamics, duration of viral shedding, and infectiousness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Microbe. 2021;2(1):e13–e22.
- Hirose R, Ikegaya H, and Naito Y, et al. Survival of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and influenza virus on human skin: importance of hand hygiene in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Clinl Infect Dis. 2020; ciaa1517.
- Kawasuji H, Takegoshi Y, and Kaneda M, et al. Transmissibility of COVID-19 depends on the viral load around onset in adult and symptomatic patients. In: Pan X, editors. PLoS ONE. 2020;15:e0243597.
- Sabin NS, Calliope AS, Simpson SV, et al. Implications of human activities for (re)emerging infectious diseases, including COVID-19. J Physiol Anthropol. 2020;39(1):29.
- Hosseini PR, Mills JN, Prieur-Richard A-H, et al. Does the impact of biodiversity differ between emerging and endemic pathogens? The need to separate the concepts of hazard and risk. Philos Trans R Soc B. 2017;372(1722):20160129.
- MacGillivray DM, and Kollmann TR The role of environmental factors in modulating immune responses in early life. Front Immunol [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2021 Jul 8]; 5. Available from: http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fimmu.2014.00434/abstract
- Comunian S, Dongo D, Milani C, et al. Air pollution and COVID-19: the role of particulate matter in the spread and increase of COVID-19ʹs morbidity and mortality. IJERPH. 2020;17(12):4487.
- Ali N, Islam F. The effects of air pollution on COVID-19 infection and mortality—A review on recent evidence. Front Public Health. 2020;8:580057.
- Bennett CM, Simpson P, Raven J, et al. Associations between ambient PM 2.5 concentrations and respiratory symptoms in Melbourne, 1998–2005. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A. 2007;70(19):1613–1618.
- Quinn A, Shaman J. Health symptoms in relation to temperature, humidity, and self-reported perceptions of climate in New York City residential environments. Int J Biometeorol. 2017;61(7):1209–1220.
- Weir EK, Thenappan T, Bhargava M, et al. Does vitamin D deficiency increase the severity of COVID-19? Clin Med. 2020;20(4):e107–e108.
- Rivett L, Sridhar S, Sparkes D, et al. Screening of healthcare workers for SARS-CoV-2 highlights the role of asymptomatic carriage in COVID-19 transmission. eLife. 2020;9:e58728.
- Gandhi M, Yokoe DS, Havlir DV. Asymptomatic transmission, the achilles’ heel of current strategies to control covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(22):2158–2160.
- Bleier BS, Ramanathan M, Lane AP. COVID-19 vaccines may not prevent nasal SARS-CoV-2 infection and asymptomatic transmission. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2021;164(2):305–307.