Demystifying controversies in preschool wheeze

References

• Bloom CI, Franklin C, Bush A, et al. Burden of preschool wheeze and progression to asthma in the UK: population-based cohort 2007 to 2017. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2021;147(5):1949–1958. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2020.12.643
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akinbami LJ, Moorman JE, Garbe PL, et al. Status of childhood asthma in the United States, 1980-2007. Pediatrics. 2009;123(Suppl 3):S131–145. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-2233C
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrante G, La Grutta S. The burden of pediatric asthma. Front Pediatr. 2018;6:186. doi:10.3389/fped.2018.00186
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferreirade Magalhães M, Amaral R, Pereira AM, et al. Cost of asthma in children: a nationwide, population-based, cost-of-illness study. Pediatric Allergy Immunology. 2017;28(7):683–691. doi: 10.1111/pai.12772
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stevens CA, Turner D, Kuehni CE, et al. The economic impact of preschool asthma and wheeze. Eur Respir J. 2003;21(6):1000–1006. doi:10.1183/09031936.03.00057002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berry CE, Billheimer D, Jenkins IC, et al. A distinct low lung function trajectory from childhood to the Fourth Decade of life. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2016;194(5):607–612. doi: 10.1164/rccm.201604-0753OC
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agustí A, Noell G, Brugada J, et al. Lung function in early adulthood and health in later life: a transgenerational cohort analysis. Lancet Respir Med. 2017;5(12):935–945. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(17)30434-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavord ID, Beasley R, Agusti A, et al. After asthma: redefining airways diseases. Lancet. 2018;391(10118):350–400. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30879-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boulet L-P, Reddel HK, Bateman E, et al. The global initiative for asthma (GINA): 25 years later. Eur Respir J. 2019;54(2):1900598. doi: 10.1183/13993003.00598-2019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brand PL, Baraldi E, Bisgaard H, et al. Definition, assessment and treatment of wheezing disorders in preschool children: an evidence-based approach. Eur Respir J. 2008;32(4):1096–1110. doi: 10.1183/09031936.00002108
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raaymakers MJA, Brand PLP, Landstra AM, et al. Episodic viral wheeze and multiple-trigger wheeze in preschool children are neither distinct nor constant patterns. A prospective multicenter cohort study in secondary care. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2019;54(9):1439–1446. doi: 10.1002/ppul.24411
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson PFM, Fontanella S, Ananth S, et al. Recurrent Severe Preschool Wheeze: From Prespecified Diagnostic Labels to Underlying Endotypes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2021;204(5):523–535. doi: 10.1164/rccm.202009-3696OC
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nieto A, Mazón A, Nieto M, et al. Bacterial mucosal immunotherapy with MV130 prevents recurrent wheezing in children: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2021;204(4):462–472. doi: 10.1164/rccm.202003-0520OC
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krawiec M, Strzelak A, Krenke K, et al. Fluticasone or montelukast in preschool wheeze: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 2015;54(3):273–281. doi:10.1177/0009922814550158
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taussig LM, Wright AL, Holberg CJ, et al. Tucson children’s respiratory study: 1980 to present. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2003;111(4):661–675; quiz 676. doi:10.1067/mai.2003.162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castro-Rodríguez JA, Holberg CJ, Wright AL, et al. A clinical index to define risk of asthma in young children with recurrent wheezing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162(4 Pt 1):1403–1406. doi:10.1164/ajrccm.162.4.9912111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Expert panel report 3 (EPR-3): guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma-summary report 2007. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007;120(5 Suppl):S94–138. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2007.09.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guilbert TW, Morgan WJ, Zeiger RS, et al. Long-term inhaled corticosteroids in preschool children at high risk for asthma. N Engl J Med. 2006;354(19):1985–1997. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa051378
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang TS, Lemanske RF Jr., Guilbert TW, et al. Evaluation of the modified asthma predictive index in high-risk preschool children. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2013;1(2):152–156. doi: 10.1016/j.jaip.2012.10.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guiddir T, Saint-Pierre P, Purenne-Denis E, et al. Neutrophilic steroid-Refractory recurrent wheeze and eosinophilic steroid-Refractory asthma in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2017;5(5):1351–1361.e1352. doi: 10.1016/j.jaip.2017.02.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saglani S, Payne DN, Zhu J, et al. Early detection of airway wall remodeling and eosinophilic inflammation in preschool wheezers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;176(9):858–864. doi: 10.1164/rccm.200702-212OC
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turato G, Barbato A, Baraldo S, et al. Nonatopic children with multitrigger wheezing have airway pathology comparable to atopic asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;178(5):476–482. doi: 10.1164/rccm.200712-1818OC
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ezmigna D, Brown M, Daines C, et al. Bronchoalveolar lavage profiles in uncontrolled wheezy children compared by asthma predictive index. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2022;57(1):293–299. doi:10.1002/ppul.25716
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwerk N, Brinkmann F, Soudah B, et al. Wheeze in preschool age is associated with pulmonary bacterial infection and resolves after antibiotic therapy. PLoS One. 2011;6(11):e27913. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0027913
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fitzpatrick AM, Jackson DJ, Mauger DT, et al. Individualized therapy for persistent asthma in young children. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2016;138(6):1608–1618.e1612. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.09.028
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maison N, Omony J, Illi S, et al. T2-high asthma phenotypes across lifespan. Eur Respir J. 2022;60(3):2102288. doi: 10.1183/13993003.02288-2021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singer F, Luchsinger I, Inci D, et al. Exhaled nitric oxide in symptomatic children at preschool age predicts later asthma. Allergy. 2013;68(4):531–538. doi: 10.1111/all.12127
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee YJ, Fujisawa T, Kim CK. Biomarkers for recurrent wheezing and asthma in preschool children. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2019;11(1):16–28. doi:10.4168/aair.2019.11.1.16
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jochmann A, Artusio L, Robson K, et al. Infection and inflammation in induced sputum from preschool children with chronic airways diseases. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2016;51(8):778–786. doi: 10.1002/ppul.23366
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld M, Allen J, Arets BH, et al. An official American Thoracic Society workshop report: optimal lung function tests for monitoring cystic fibrosis, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and recurrent wheezing in children less than 6 years of age. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2013;10(2):S1–s11. doi: 10.1513/AnnalsATS.201301-017ST
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Evans DJ, Schultz A, Verheggen M, et al. Identifying pediatric lung disease: a comparison of forced oscillation technique outcomes. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2019;54(6):751–758. doi:10.1002/ppul.24286
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunawardana S, Tuazon M, Wheatley L, et al. Airwave oscillometry and spirometry in children with asthma or wheeze. J Asthma. 2023;60(6):1153–1161. doi:10.1080/02770903.2022.2134795
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bingham Y, Sanghani N, Cook J, et al. Electronic adherence monitoring identifies severe preschool wheezers who are steroid responsive. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2020;55(9):2254–2260. doi: 10.1002/ppul.24943
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bacharier LB, Guilbert TW, Mauger DT, et al. Early Administration of azithromycin and Prevention of severe lower respiratory tract illnesses in preschool children with a history of such illnesses: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015;314(19):2034–2044. doi: 10.1001/jama.2015.13896
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hare KM, Leach AJ, Smith-Vaughan HC, et al. Streptococcus pneumoniae and chronic endobronchial infections in childhood. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2017;52(12):1532–1545. doi:10.1002/ppul.23828
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castro-Rodriguez JA, Beckhaus AA, Forno E. Efficacy of oral corticosteroids in the treatment of acute wheezing episodes in asthmatic preschoolers: systematic review with meta-analysis. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2016;51(8):868–876. doi:10.1002/ppul.23429
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster SJ, Cooper MN, Oosterhof S, et al. Oral prednisolone in preschool children with virus-associated wheeze: a prospective, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2018;6(2):97–106. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(18)30008-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saglani S, Rosenthal M, Bush A. Should oral corticosteroids be prescribed for preschool viral wheeze? Lancet Respir Med. 2018;6(6):e21. doi:10.1016/S2213-2600(18)30146-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Panickar J, Lakhanpaul M, Lambert PC, et al. Oral prednisolone for preschool children with acute virus-induced wheezing. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(4):329–338. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0804897
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace A, Sinclair O, Shepherd M, et al. Impact of oral corticosteroids on respiratory outcomes in acute preschool wheeze: a randomised clinical trial. Arch Dis Child. 2021;106(4):339–344. doi: 10.1136/archdischild-2020-318971
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bacharier LB, Phillips BR, Zeiger RS, et al. Episodic use of an inhaled corticosteroid or leukotriene receptor antagonist in preschool children with moderate-to-severe intermittent wheezing. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2008;122(6):1127–1135.e1128. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2008.09.029
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeiger RS, Mauger D, Bacharier LB, et al. Daily or intermittent budesonide in preschool children with recurrent wheezing. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(21):1990–2001. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1104647
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beigelman A, Durrani S, Guilbert TW. Should a preschool child with acute episodic wheeze be treated with oral corticosteroids? A Pro/Con debate. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2016;4(1):27–35. doi:10.1016/j.jaip.2015.10.017
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beigelman A, King TS, Mauger D, et al. Do oral corticosteroids reduce the severity of acute lower respiratory tract illnesses in preschool children with recurrent wheezing? J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2013;131(6):1518–1525. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2013.01.034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKean M, Ducharme F. Inhaled steroids for episodic viral wheeze of childhood. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;2000(2):Cd001107. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001107
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ducharme FM, Lemire C, Noya FJ, et al. Preemptive use of high-dose fluticasone for virus-induced wheezing in young children. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(4):339–353. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0808907
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisgaard H, Hermansen MN, Bønnelykke K, et al. Association of bacteria and viruses with wheezy episodes in young children: prospective birth cohort study. BMJ. 2010;341(oct04 1):c4978. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c4978
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stokholm J, Chawes BL, Vissing NH, et al. Azithromycin for episodes with asthma-like symptoms in young children aged 1-3 years: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2016;4(1):19–26. doi: 10.1016/S2213-2600(15)00500-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandhane PJ, Paredes Zambrano de Silbernagel P, Aung YN, et al. Treatment of preschool children presenting to the emergency department with wheeze with azithromycin: a placebo-controlled randomized trial. PLoS One. 2017;12(8):e0182411. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0182411
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pincheira MA, Bacharier LB, Castro-Rodriguez JA. Efficacy of macrolides on acute asthma or wheezing exacerbations in children with recurrent wheezing: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Paediatr Drugs. 2020;22(2):217–228. doi:10.1007/s40272-019-00371-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar