688
Views
16
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Novel pharmacological treatment strategies for posttraumatic stress disorder

&
Pages 167-177 | Received 15 Jul 2016, Accepted 09 Nov 2016, Published online: 07 Dec 2016

References

  • Cantor C. Post-traumatic stress disorder: evolutionary perspectives. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2009;43(11):1038–1048. DOI:10.1080/00048670903270407
  • Morrison FG, Ressler KJ. From the neurobiology of extinction to improved clinical treatments. Depress Anxiety. 2014;31(4):279–290. DOI:10.1002/da.22214
  • Yehuda RMcFarlane AC. Conflict between current knowledge about posttraumatic stress disorder and its original conceptual basis. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152(12):1705–1713. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8526234
  • American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Association; 2013.
  • Benjet C, Bromet E, Karam EG, et al. The epidemiology of traumatic event exposure worldwide: results from the World Mental Health Survey Consortium. Psychol Med. 2016;46(2):327–343. DOI:10.1017/S0033291715001981
  • Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, et al. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):593–602. DOI:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593
  • Goldstein RB, Smith SM, Chou SP, et al. The epidemiology of DSM-5 posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2016;51:1137–1148. DOI:10.1007/s00127-016-1208-5
  • Atwoli L, Stein DJ, Koenen KC, et al. Epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: prevalence, correlates and consequences. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2015;28(4):307–311. DOI:10.1097/YCO.0000000000000167
  • Kessler RC. Posttraumatic stress disorder: the burden to the individual and to society. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61(Suppl 5):4–12. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10761674
  • Friedman MJ. PTSD in the DSM-5: reply to Brewin (2013), Kilpatrick (2013), and Maercker and Perkonigg (2013). J Trauma Stress. 2013;26(5):567–569. DOI:10.1002/jts.21847
  • Zoellner LA, Rothbaum BO, Feeny NC. PTSD not an anxiety disorder? DSM committee proposal turns back the hands of time. Depress Anxiety. 2011;28(10):853–856. DOI:10.1002/da.20899
  • Schmidt U. A plea for symptom-based research in psychiatry. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2015;6:27660. Available from: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=4439426&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract
  • Yehuda R, Hoge CW, McFarlane AC, et al. Post-traumatic stress disorder. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2015;1:15057. DOI:10.1038/nrdp.2015.57
  • Bailey CR, Cordell E, Sobin SM, et al. Recent progress in understanding the pathophysiology of post-traumatic stress disorder: implications for targeted pharmacological treatment. CNS Drugs. 2013;27(3):221–232. DOI:10.1007/s40263-013-0051-4
  • Herman JP, McKlveen JM, Ghosal S, et al. Regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical stress response. Compr Physiol. 2016;6(2):603–621. DOI:10.1002/cphy.c150015
  • Sorrells SF, Sapolsky RM. An inflammatory review of glucocorticoid actions in the CNS. Brain Behav Immun. 2007;21(3):259–272. DOI:10.1016/j.bbi.2006.11.006
  • Resnick HS, Yehuda R, et al. Effect of previous trauma on acute plasma cortisol level following rape. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152(11):1675–1677. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7485635
  • Conrad CD. Chronic stress-induced hippocampal vulnerability: the glucocorticoid vulnerability hypothesis. Rev Neurosci. 2008;19(6):395–411. Available from: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=2746750&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract
  • Knoops AJG, Gerritsen L, Van Der Graaf Y, et al. Basal hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis activity and hippocampal volumes: the SMART-Medea study. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;67(12):1191–1198. DOI:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.01.025
  • Pitman RK, Rasmusson AM, Koenen KC, et al. Biological studies of post-traumatic stress disorder. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2012;13(11):769–787. DOI:10.1038/nrn3339
  • Pitman RK, Gilbertson MW, Gurvits TV, et al. Harvard/VA PTSD Twin Study Investigators. Clarifying the origin of biological abnormalities in PTSD through the study of identical twins discordant for combat exposure. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006;1071:242–254. DOI:10.1196/annals.1364.019
  • Phelps EA, LeDoux JE. Contributions of the amygdala to emotion processing: from animal models to human behavior. Neuron. 2005;48(2):175–187. DOI:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.09.025
  • Sotres-Bayon F, Cain CK, LeDoux JE. Brain mechanisms of fear extinction: historical perspectives on the contribution of prefrontal cortex. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;60(4):329–336. DOI:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.10.012
  • Weinberger DR, Radulescu E. Finding the elusive psychiatric “lesion” with 21st-century neuroanatomy: a note of caution. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;173(1):27–33. DOI:10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15060753
  • Howlett JR, Stein MB. Prevention of trauma and stressor-related disorders: a review. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2016;41(1):357–369. DOI:10.1038/npp.2015.261
  • Bowers ME, Ressler KJ. An overview of translationally informed treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder: animal models of Pavlovian fear conditioning to human clinical trials. Biol Psychiatry. 2015;78(5):E15–E27. DOI:10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.06.008
  • Valentino RJ, Van Bockstaele E. Endogenous opioids: the downside of opposing stress. Neurobiol Stress. 2015;1:23–32. DOI:10.1016/j.ynstr.2014.09.006
  • Sherin JE, Nemeroff CB. Post-traumatic stress disorder: the neurobiological impact of psychological trauma. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2011;13(3):263–278. Available from: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=3182008&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract
  • Maren S, Holmes A. Stress and fear extinction. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2016;41(1):58–79. DOI:10.1038/npp.2015.180
  • Nishi D, Hashimoto KNoguchi H, et al. Glutamatergic system abnormalities in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2015;232(23):4261-4268. doi: 10.1007/s00213-015-4052-5.
  • Riaza Bermudo-Soriano CPerez-Rodriguez MM, et al. New perspectives in glutamate and anxiety. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2012;100(4):752–774. doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.04.010.
  • Levenson J, Weeber E, Selcher JC, et al. Long-term potentiation and contextual fear conditioning increase neuronal glutamate uptake. Nat Neurosci. 2002;5(2):155–161. DOI:10.1038/nn791
  • Almli LM, Fani N, Smith AK, et al. Genetic approaches to understanding post-traumatic stress disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;17(2):355–370. DOI:10.1017/S1461145713001090
  • Binder EB, Bradley RG, Liu W, et al. Association of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse with risk of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults. JAMA. 2008;299(11):1291–1305. DOI:10.1001/jama.299.11.1291
  • Zannas AS, Wiechmann T, Gassen NC, et al. Gene-stress-epigenetic regulation of FKBP5: clinical and translational implications. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2016;41(1):261–274. DOI:10.1038/npp.2015.235
  • Nugent NR, Lally MA, Brown L, et al. OPRM1 and diagnosis-related posttraumatic stress disorder in binge-drinking patients living with HIV. AIDS Behav. 2012;16(8):2171–2180. DOI:10.1007/s10461-011-0095-8
  • Zhang L, Benedek DM, Fullerton CS, et al. PTSD risk is associated with BDNF Val66Met and BDNF overexpression. Mol Psychiatry. 2014;19(1):8–10. DOI:10.1038/mp.2012.180
  • Bruenig D, Lurie J, Morris CP, et al. A case-control study and meta-analysis reveal BDNF Val66Met is a possible risk factor for PTSD. Neural Plast. 2016;2016:6979435. DOI:10.1155/2016/6979435
  • Charney DS, Deutch AY, Krystal JH, et al. Psychobiologic mechanisms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993;50(4):295–305. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8466391
  • Weathers FW, Blake DD, Schnurr PP, et al. The clinician-administered PTSD scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5). 2013.  Interview available from the National Center for PTSD at www.ptsd.va.gov.
  • Katzman MA, Bleau P, Blier P, et al. Canadian clinical practice guidelines for the management of anxiety, posttraumatic stress and obsessive-compulsive disorders. BMC Psychiatry. 2014;14(Suppl 1):S1. DOI:10.1186/1471-244X-14-S1-S1
  • Cusack K, Jonas DE, Forneris CA, et al. Psychological treatments for adults with posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 2016;43:128–141. DOI:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.10.003
  • Lee DJ, Schnitzlein CW, Wolf JP, et al. Psychotherapy versus pharmacotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: systemic review and meta-analyses to determine first-line treatments. Depress Anxiety. 2016;33:792–806. DOI:10.1002/da.22511
  • Bisson JI, Roberts NP, Andrew M, et al. Psychological therapies for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;12:CD003388. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD003388.pub4
  • Levy-Gigi E, Szabó C, Kelemen O, et al. Association among clinical response, hippocampal volume, and FKBP5 gene expression in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder receiving cognitive behavioral therapy. Biol Psychiatry. 2013;74(11):793–800. DOI:10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.05.017
  • Brooks SJ, Stein DJ. A systematic review of the neural bases of psychotherapy for anxiety and related disorders. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2015;17(3):261–279. Available from: http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=4610611&tool=pmcentrez&rendertype=abstract
  • Novo Navarro P, Landin-Romero R, Guardiola-Wanden-Berghe R, et al. 25 years of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): the EMDR therapy protocol, hypotheses of its mechanism of action and a systematic review of its efficacy in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Rev Psiquiatr Salud Ment. 2016. DOI:10.1016/j.rpsm.2015.12.002
  • Shapiro F. The role of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy in medicine: addressing the psychological and physical symptoms stemming from adverse life experiences. Perm J. 2014;18(1):71–77. DOI:10.7812/TPP/13-098
  • Pagani M, Di Lorenzo G, Verardo AR, et al. Neurobiological correlates of EMDR monitoring - an EEG study. PLoS One. 2012;7(9):e45753. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0045753
  • Bandelow B, Sher L, Bunevicius R, et al., WFSBP Task Force on Anxiety Disorders, OCD and PTSD. Guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder in primary care. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2012;16(2):77–84. DOI:10.3109/13651501.2012.667114
  • Ipser JC, Stein DJ. Evidence-based pharmacotherapy of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2012;15(6):825–840. DOI:10.1017/S1461145711001209
  • Hoskins M, Pearce J, Bethell A, et al. Pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2015;206(2):93–100. DOI:10.1192/bjp.bp.114.148551
  • Stein DJ, Ipser J, McAnda N. Pharmacotherapy of posttraumatic stress disorder: a review of meta-analyses and treatment guidelines. CNS Spectr. 2009;14(1 Suppl 1):25–31. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19169191
  • Albert PR, Vahid-Ansari F, Luckhart C. Serotonin-prefrontal cortical circuitry in anxiety and depression phenotypes: pivotal role of pre- and post-synaptic 5-HT1A receptor expression. Front Behav Neurosci. 2014;8:199. DOI:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00199
  • MacNamara A, Rabinak CA, Kennedy AE, et al. Emotion regulatory brain function and SSRI treatment in PTSD: neural correlates and predictors of change. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2016;41(2):611–618. DOI:10.1038/npp.2015.190
  • Amos TStein DJ, Ipser jc. pharmacological interventions for preventing post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd). Cochrane database Syst Rev. 2014;(7):CD006239. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006239.pub2.
  • Hurlemann R, Walter H, Rehme AK, et al. Human amygdala reactivity is diminished by the β-noradrenergic antagonist propranolol. Psychol Med. 2010;40(11):1839–1848. DOI:10.1017/S0033291709992376
  • Dębiec J, Bush DEA, LeDoux JE. Noradrenergic enhancement of reconsolidation in the amygdala impairs extinction of conditioned fear in rats–a possible mechanism for the persistence of traumatic memories in PTSD. Depress Anxiety. 2011;28(3):186–193. doi:10.1002/da.20803.
  • Villain H, Benkahoul A, Drougard A, et al. Effects of Propranolol, a β-noradrenergic antagonist, on memory consolidation and reconsolidation in mice. Front Behav Neurosci. 2016;10:49. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00049.
  • Lonergan MH, Olivera-Figueroa LA, Pitman RK, et al. Propranolol’s effects on the consolidation and reconsolidation of long-term emotional memory in healthy participants: a meta-analysis. J Psychiatry Neurosci. 2013;38(4):222–231. doi:10.1503/jpn.120111.
  • Burbiel JC. Primary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder: drugs and implications. Mil Med Res. 2015;2:24. doi:10.1186/s40779-015-0053-2.
  • Steenen SA, van Wijk AJ, van der Heijden GJMG, et al. Propranolol for the treatment of anxiety disorders: Systematic review and meta-analysis. J Psychopharmacol. 2016;30(2):128–139. doi:10.1177/0269881115612236.
  • Fallowfield JM, Marlow HF. Propranolol is contraindicated in asthma. BMJ. 1996;313(7070):1486. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8973266. Accessed June 26, 2016.
  • Belkin MR, Schwartz TL. Alpha-2 receptor agonists for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Drugs Context. 2015;4:212286. doi:10.7573/dic.212286.
  • Gamache K, Pitman RK, Nader K. Preclinical evaluation of reconsolidation blockade by clonidine as a potential novel treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2012;37(13):2789–2796. DOI:10.1038/npp.2012.145
  • Connor DF, Grasso DJ, Slivinsky MD, et al. An open-label study of guanfacine extended release for traumatic stress related symptoms in children and adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2013;23(4):244–251. DOI:10.1089/cap.2012.0119
  • Groeneweg FL, Karst H, de Kloet ER, et al. Rapid non-genomic effects of corticosteroids and their role in the central stress response. J Endocrinol. 2011;209(2):153–167. doi:10.1530/JOE-10-0472.
  • van Zuiden M, Kavelaars A, Geuze E,et al. Predicting PTSD: pre-existing vulnerabilities in glucocorticoid-signaling and implications for preventive interventions. Brain Behav Immun. 2013;30:12–21. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2012.08.015.
  • Yehuda R, Bierer LM, Schmeidler J, et al. Low cortisol and risk for PTSD in adult offspring of holocaust survivors. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157(8):1252–1259. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.8.1252.
  • Zohar J, Juven-Wetzler A, Sonnino R, et al. New insights into secondary prevention in post-traumatic stress disorder. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2011;13(3):301–309. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22033784
  • Yehuda R, Bierer LM, Pratchett LC, et al. Cortisol augmentation of a psychological treatment for warfighters with posttraumatic stress disorder: randomized trial showing improved treatment retention and outcome. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2015;51:589–597. DOI:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.08.004
  • Zohar J, Yahalom H, Kozlovsky N, et al. High dose hydrocortisone immediately after trauma may alter the trajectory of PTSD: Interplay between clinical and animal studies. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2011;21(11):796–809. DOI:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.06.001
  • Delahanty DL, Gabert-Quillen C, Ostrowski SA, et al. The efficacy of initial hydrocortisone administration at preventing posttraumatic distress in adult trauma patients: a randomized trial. CNS Spectr. 2013;18(2):103–111. DOI:10.1017/S1092852913000096
  • Phillips KM, Clark ME, et al. Pain and psychiatric comorbidities among two groups of Iraq and Afghanistan era Veterans. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2016 Jan;53(4):413–432. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27532156
  • Bali A, Randhawa PK, Jaggi AS. Stress and opioids: role of opioids in modulating stress-related behavior and effect of stress on morphine conditioned place preference. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2015;51:138–150. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25636946
  • Barfield ET, Moser VA, Hand A, et al. β-endorphin modulates the effect of stress on novelty-suppressed feeding. Front Behav Neurosci. 2013; 7:19. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23503677
  • Joshi JC, Ray A, Gulati K. Differential modulatory effects of morphine on acute and chronic stress induced neurobehavioral and cellular markers in rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 2014;729:17–21. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24508522
  • Holbrook TL, Galarneau MR, Dye JL, et al. Morphine use after combat injury in Iraq and post-traumatic stress disorder. N Engl J Med. 2010;362(2):110–117. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa0903326
  • Suliman S, Seedat S, Pingo J, et al. Escitalopram in the prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder: a pilot randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry. 2015;15:24. DOI:10.1186/s12888-015-0391-3
  • Stoddard FJ, Luthra R, Sorrentino EA, et al. A randomized controlled trial of sertraline to prevent posttraumatic stress disorder in burned children. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2011;21(5):469–477. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22040192
  • Sijbrandij M, Kleiboer A, Bisson JI, et al. Pharmacological prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry. 2015;2(5):413–421. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26360285
  • Murrough JW, Soleimani L, DeWilde KE, et al. Ketamine for rapid reduction of suicidal ideation: a randomized controlled trial. Psychol Med. 2015;45(16):3571–3580. DOI:10.1017/S0033291715001506
  • Zhang L-M, Zhou -W-W, Ji Y-J, et al. Anxiolytic effects of ketamine in animal models of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacology. 2015;232(4):663–672. DOI:10.1007/s00213-014-3697-9
  • Feder A, Parides MK, Murrough JW, et al. Efficacy of intravenous ketamine for treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2014;71(6):681–688. DOI:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.62
  • Duman RS. Neuronal damage and protection in the pathophysiology and treatment of psychiatric illness: stress and depression. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2009;11(3):239–255. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19877493
  • Su S, Xiao Z, Lin Z, et al. Plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in patients suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2015;229( 1–2):365–369. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26160204
  • Kawakita E, Hashimoto M, Shido O. Docosahexaenoic acid promotes neurogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Neuroscience. 2006;139(3):991–997. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16527422
  • Matsuoka Y, Nishi D, Yonemoto N, et al. Potential role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in omega-3 Fatty Acid supplementation to prevent posttraumatic distress after accidental injury: an open-label pilot study. Psychother Psychosom. 2011;80(5):310–312. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21720194
  • Matsumura K, Noguchi H, Nishi D, et al. Effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on psychophysiological symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in accident survivors: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Affect Disord. 2016. DOI:10.1016/j.jad.2016.05.054
  • Ranieri R, Marasco D, Bifulco M, et al. Phytocannabinoids and cannabimimetic drugs: recent patents in central nervous system disorders. Recent Pat CNS Drug Discov. 2016;10:157–177. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27334611
  • Blessing EM, Steenkamp MM, Manzanares J, et al. Cannabidiol as a potential treatment for anxiety disorders. Neurotherapeutics. 2015;12:825–836. DOI:10.1007/s13311-015-0387-1
  • Trezza V, Campolongo P. The endocannabinoid system as a possible target to treat both the cognitive and emotional features of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Front Behav Neurosci. 2013;7:100. DOI:10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00100
  • Neumeister A, Seidel J, Ragen BJ, et al. Translational evidence for a role of endocannabinoids in the etiology and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2015;51:577–584. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25456347
  • Marsicano G, Wotjak CT, Azad SC, et al. The endogenous cannabinoid system controls extinction of aversive memories. Nature. 2002;418(6897):530–534. Available from: http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/nature00839
  • Korem N, Zer-Aviv TM, Ganon-Elazar E, et al. Targeting the endocannabinoid system to treat anxiety-related disorders. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol. 2016;27(3):193–202. DOI:10.1515/jbcpp-2015-0058
  • Bortolato M, Campolongo P, Mangieri RA, et al. Anxiolytic-like properties of the anandamide transport inhibitor AM404. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2006;31(12):2652–2659. DOI:10.1038/sj.npp.1301061
  • Foa EB, McLean CP. The efficacy of exposure therapy for anxiety-related disorders and its underlying mechanisms: the case of OCD and PTSD. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2016;12:1–28. DOI:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093533
  • Hofmann SG. D-cycloserine for treating anxiety disorders: making good exposures better and bad exposures worse. Depress Anxiety. 2014;31(3):175–177. DOI:10.1002/da.22257
  • McGuire JF, Wu MS, Piacentini J, et al. A meta-analysis of d-cycloserine in exposure-based treatment: moderators of treatment efficacy, response, and diagnostic remission. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016. DOI:10.4088/JCP.15r10334
  • Ori R, Amos T, Bergman H, et al. Augmentation of cognitive and behavioural therapies (CBT) with d-cycloserine for anxiety and related disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;5:CD007803. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD007803.pub2
  • Mithoefer MC, Grob CS, Brewerton TD. Novel psychopharmacological therapies for psychiatric disorders: psilocybin and MDMA. The Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;3(5):481–488. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27067625
  • Mithoefer MC, Wagner MT, Mithoefer AT, et al. The safety and efficacy of {+/-}3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted psychotherapy in subjects with chronic, treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: the first randomized controlled pilot study. J Psychopharmacol. 2011;25(4):439–452. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20643699
  • Carhart-Harris RL, Leech R, Williams TM, et al. Implications for psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy: functional magnetic resonance imaging study with psilocybin. Br J Psychiatry. 2012;200(3):238–244. DOI:10.1192/bjp.bp.111.103309
  • Amoroso T, Workman M. Treating posttraumatic stress disorder with MDMA-assisted psychotherapy: A preliminary meta-analysis and comparison to prolonged exposure therapy. J psychopharmacol. 2016;30(7):595–600. doi:10.1177/0269881116642542.
  • Sabban EL, Alaluf LG, Serova LI. Potential of neuropeptide Y for preventing or treating post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropeptides. 2016;56:19–24. DOI:10.1016/j.npep.2015.11.004
  • Adhikari A, Lerner TN, Finkelstein J, et al. Basomedial amygdala mediates top-down control of anxiety and fear. Nature. 2015;527(7577):179–185. doi:10.1038/nature15698
  • Chen Y, Li X, Kobayashi I, et al. Expression and methylation in posttraumatic stress disorder and resilience; evidence of a role for odorant receptors. Psychiatry Res. 2016;245:36–44. DOI:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.07.045
  • Olff M, Van Zuiden M, Koch SBJ, et al. Intranasal oxytocin: miracle cure after trauma? Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2015;6. DOI:10.3402/ejpt.v6.27631
  • De Berardis D, Marini S, Serroni N, et al. Targeting the noradrenergic system in posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prazosin trials. Curr Drug Targets. 2015;16(10):1094–1106. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25944011
  • Berlin HA. Antiepileptic drugs for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2007;9(4):291–300. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17880860
  • Alderman CP, McCarthy LC, Condon JT, et al. Topiramate in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Ann Pharmacother. 2009;43(4):635–641. DOI:10.1345/aph.1L578
  • Yeh MSL, Mari JJ, Costa MCP, et al. A double-blind randomized controlled trial to study the efficacy of topiramate in a civilian sample of PTSD. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2011;17(5):305–310. DOI:10.1111/j.1755-5949.2010.00188.x
  • Krystal JH, Pietrzak RH, Rosenheck RA, et al. Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study #504 Group. Sleep disturbance in chronic military-related PTSD: clinical impact and response to adjunctive risperidone in the Veterans Affairs cooperative study #504. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016;77(4):483–491. DOI:10.4088/JCP.14m09585
  • Naylor JC, Kilts JD, Bradford DW, et al. A pilot randomized placebo-controlled trial of adjunctive aripiprazole for chronic PTSD in US military veterans resistant to antidepressant treatment. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2015;30(3):167–174. DOI:10.1097/YIC.0000000000000061
  • Weiss T, Skelton K, Phifer J, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder is a risk factor for metabolic syndrome in an impoverished urban population. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2011;33(2):135–142. DOI:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2011.01.002
  • Bernardy NC, Friedman MJ. How and why does the pharmaceutical management of PTSD differ between men and women? Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2016;17:1449–1451. DOI:10.1080/14656566.2016.1199686
  • Thomaes K, De Kloet C, Wilker S, et al. Investigating biological traces of traumatic stress in changing societies: challenges and directions from the ESTSS task force on neurobiology. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2016;7:29453. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26996535
  • Flanagan JC, Korte KJ, Killeen TK, et al. Concurrent treatment of substance use and PTSD. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2016;18(8):70. doi:10.1007/s11920-016-0709-y.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.