Eyewitness Memory in Journalistic Context: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Study Post-Event Misinformation Effects

References

• Albright, T. D. 2017. “Why Eyewitnesses Fail.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114 (30): 7758–7764.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asch, S. E. 1948. “The Doctrine of Suggestion, Prestige and Imitation in Social Psychology.” Psychological Review 55 (5): 250–267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blank, H., and C. Launay. 2014. “How to Protect Eyewitness Memory Against the Misinformation Effect: A Meta-Analysis of Post-Warning Studies.” Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 3 (2): 77–88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blank, H., E. Walther, and S. D. Isemann. 2016. “The Past is a Social Construction: Susceptibility to Social Influence in (Mis)remembering.” In False and Distorted Memories, edited by R. A. Nash, and J. Ost, 55–71. London, UK: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Blom, R. 2019. "Eyes Wide Shut: Failures to Teach Student Journalists About Eyewitness Error." Journalism & Mass Communication Educator 74 (3): 345–357.
   Google Scholar
• Blom, R. 2021. "Believing False Political Headlines and Discrediting Truthful Political Headlines: The Interaction Between News Source Trust and News Content Expectancy." Journalism: Theory, Practice & Criticism 22 (3): 821–837.
   Google Scholar
• Blom, R., and K.-T. Huang. 2021. "Eyewitness Memory Contamination Through Misleading Questions by Reporters." Newspaper Research Journal 42 (30): 346–363.
   Google Scholar
• Brady, J. 2011. The Craft of Interviewing. New York, NY: Vintage.
   Google Scholar
• Brainerd, C. J., and V. F. Reyna. 2019. “Fuzzy-Trace Theory, False Memory, and the Law.” Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences 6 (1): 79–86.
   Google Scholar
• Broersma, M., B. Den Herder, and B. Schohaus. 2013. “A Question of Power: The Changing Dynamics Between Journalists and Sources.” Journalism Practice 7 (4): 388–395.
   Google Scholar
• Brooks, B. S., G. Kennedy, D. R. Moen, and D. Ranly. 2011. Telling the Story: The Convergence of Print, Broadcast and Online Media. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
   Google Scholar
• Brooks, B. S., G. Kennedy, D. R. Moen, and D. Ranly. 2017. News Reporting and Writing. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
   Google Scholar
• Butler, B. J., and E. F. Loftus. 2018. “Discrepancy Detection in the Retrieval-Enhanced Suggestibility Paradigm.” Memory 26 (4): 483–492.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacciatore, M. A., D. A. Scheufele, and S. Iyengar. 2016. “The End of Framing as we Know it … and the Future of Media Effects.” Mass Communication & Society 19 (1): 7–23.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cappella, J. N., and K. H. Jamieson. 1997. Spiral of Cynicism: The Press and the Public Good. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Carlson, C. A., J. L. Dias, D. R. Weatherford, and M. A. Carlson. 2017. “An Investigation of the Weapon Focus Effect and the Confidence–Accuracy Relationship for Eyewitness Identification.” Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 6 (1): 82–92.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carpenter, S., A. Cepak, and Z. Peng. 2018. “An Exploration of the Complexity of Journalistic Interviewing Competencies.” Journalism Studies 19 (15): 2283–2303.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassel, W. S., C. E. M. Roebers, and D. F. Bjorkland. 1996. “Developmental Patterns of Eyewitness Responses to Repeated and Increasingly Suggestive Questions.” Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 61 (2): 116–133.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chambers, K. L., and M. S. Zaragoza. 2001. “Intended and Unintended Effects of Explicit Warnings on Eyewitness Suggestibility: Evidence from Source Identification Tests.” Memory & Cognition 29 (8): 1120–1129.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chong, D., and J. N. Druckman. 2007. “Framing Theory.” Annual Review of Political Science 101 (4): 103–126.
   Google Scholar
• Clark, H. H., and M. F. Schober. 1992. “Asking Questions and Influencing Answers.” In Questions About Questions: Inquiries Into the Cognitive Biases of Surveys, edited by J. M. Tanur, 15–48. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Clayman, S., and J. Heritage. 2002. The News Interview: Journalists and Public Figures on the Air. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Clayman, S. E., J. Heritage, M. N. Elliott, and L. L. McDonald. 2007. “What Does the Watchdog Bark? Conditions of Aggressive Questioning in Presidential News Conferences.” American Sociological Review 72 (1): 23–41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, A. M., and E. F. Loftus. 1975. “A Spreading-Activation Theory of Semantic Processing.” Psychological Review 82 (6): 407–428.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, M. R., M. McMahon, and K. M. Greenwood. 2005. “The Efficacy of Mnemonic Components of the Cognitive Interview: Towards a Shortened Variant for Time-Critical Investigations.” Applied Cognitive Psychology 19 (1): 75–93.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodd, D. H., and J. M. Bradshaw. 1980. “Leading Questions and Memory: Pragmatic Constraints.” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 19 (6): 695–704.
   Google Scholar
• Dodier, O., F. Tomas, M. Payoux, and B. Elissalde. 2019. “Professionals Experience in Investigative Interviewing Does not Guarantee Strong Knowledge About Memory.” Psychological Research on Urban Society 2 (1): 117–125.
   Google Scholar
• Drivdahl, S. B., and M. S. Zaragoza. 2001. “The Role of Perceptual Elaboration and Individual Differences in the Creation of False Memories for Suggested Events.” Applied Cognitive Psychology 15 (3): 265–281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Echterhoff, G., W. Higgins, R. Kopietz, and S. Groll. 2008. “How Communication Goals Determine When Audience Tuning Biases Memory.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 137 (1): 3–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Echterhoff, G., W. Hirst, and W. Hussy. 2005. “How Eyewitnesses Resist Misinformation: Social Postwarnings and the Monitoring of Memory Characteristics.” Memory & Cognition 33 (5): 129–146.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisen, M. L., F. Gabbert, R. Ying, and J. Williams. 2017. “I Think he had a Tattoo on his Neck: How Co-Witness Discussions About a Perpetrator's Description Can Affect Eyewitness Identification Decisions.” Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 6 (3): 274–282.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekström, M. 2002. “Epistemologies of TV Journalism.” Journalism 3 (3): 259–282.
   Google Scholar
• Entman, R. M. 1993. “Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm.” Journal of Communication 43 (4): 51–58.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farina, F. R., and C. M. Greene. 2020. “Examining the Effects of Memory Specificity and Perceptual Load on Susceptibility to Misleading Information.” Applied Cognitive Psychology 34 (4): 928–938.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher, R. P., and R. E. Geiselman. 2010. “The Cognitive Interview Method of Conducting Police Interviews: Eliciting Extensive Information and Promoting Therapeutic Jurisprudence.” International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 33 (5-6): 321–328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher, R. P., and R. E. Geiselman. 2019. “Expanding the Cognitive Interview to Non-Criminal Investigations.” In Evidence-Based Investigative Interviewing: Applying Cognitive Principles, edited by J. J. Dickinson, N. S. Compo, R. N. Carol, B. L. Schwartz, and M. R. McCauley. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Foddy, W. 1993. Constructing Questions for Interviews and Questionnaires: Theory and Practice in Social Research. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fontana, A., and J. H. Frey. 1994. “Interviewing: The Art of Science.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research, edited by N. Denzin, and Y. Lincoln, 361–376. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Gabbert, F., L. Hope, R. P. Fisher, and K. Jamieson. 2012. “Protecting Against Misleading Post-Event Information with a Self-Administered Interview.” Applied Cognitive Psychology 26 (4): 568–575.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gallo, D. A., and H. L. Roediger III. 2002. “Variability Among Word Lists in Eliciting Memory Illusions: Evidence for Associative Activation and Monitoring.” Journal of Memory and Language 47 (3): 469–497.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gous, G., and J. M. Wheatcroft. 2020. “Directive Leading Questions and Preparation Technique Effects on Witness Accuracy.” Sage Open 10 (1). doi:10.1177/2158244019899053.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregory, A. H. 2009. “Investigative Interviewing and Memory: How Accurate are Interviewers Recollections of Investigative Interviews?” (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Florida International University.
   Google Scholar
• Guadagno, B. L., and M. B. Powell. 2014. “An Examination of the Prevalence of Temporally Leading Questions in Child Witness Interviews.” International Journal of Police Science & Management 16 (1): 16–25.
   Google Scholar
• Gubrium, J. F., and J. A. Holstein. 2012. “Narrative Practice and the Transformation of Interview Subjectivity.” In SAGE Handbook of Interview Research: The Complexity of the Craft, edited by J. F. Gubrium, J. A. Holstein, A. B. Marvasti, and K. D. McKinney, 27–43. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Hanway, P., L. Akehurst, Z. Vernham, and L. Hope. 2020. “The Effects of Cognitive Load During an Investigative Interviewing Task on Mock Interviewers’ Recall of Information.” Legal and Criminological Psychology 26 (1): 25–41.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrower, T. 2013. Inside Reporting: A Practical Guide to the Craft of Journalism. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Heritage, J. 2003. “Designing Questions and Setting Agendas in the News Interview.” In Studies in Language and Social Interaction: In Honor of Robert Hopper, edited by P. Glenn, C. D. LeBaron, and J. Mandelbaum, 57–90. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Hope, L., J. Ost, F. Gabbert, S. Healey, and E. Lenton. 2008. “With a Little Help from my Friends … : The Role of Co-Witness Relationship in Susceptibility to Misinformation.” Acta Psychologica 127 (2): 476–484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houston, B., L. Bruzzese, and S. Weinberg. 2002. The Investigative Reporter’s Handbook: A Guide to Documents, Databases and Techniques. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
   Google Scholar
• Hovland, C. I., and W. Weiss. 1951. “The Influence of Source Credibility on Communication Effectiveness.” Public Opinion Quarterly 15 (4): 635–650.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howe, M. L., M. C. Wimmer, and K. Blease. 2009. “The Role of Associative Strength in Children’s False Memory Illusions.” Memory 17 (1): 8–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Innocence Project. 2020. How Eyewitness Misidentification can Send Innocent People to Prison. https://innocenceproject.org/how-eyewitness-misidentification-can-send-innocent-people-to-prison/.
   Google Scholar
• Innocence Project. n.d. Keith Allen Harward. https://innocenceproject.org/cases/keith-allen-harward/.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, M. K., S. Hashtroudi, and D. S. Lindsay. 1993. “Source Monitoring.” Psychological Bulletin 114 (1): 3–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Köhnken, G. 1995. “Interviewing Adults.” In Handbook of Psychology in Legal Contexts, edited by D. Carson, and R. Bull, 215–233. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• LaPaglia, J. A., and J. C. K. Chan. 2019. “Telling a Good Story: The Effects of Memory Retrieval and Context Processing on Eyewitness Suggestibility.” PLoS One 14 (2): e0212592.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lecheler, S., and C. H. De Vreese. 2019. News Framing Effects. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Lindsay, D. S., and M. K. Johnson. 1989. “The Eyewitness Suggestibility Effect and Memory for Source.” Memory & Cognition 17 (3): 349–358.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loftus, E. F. 1975a. “Reconstructing Memory: The Incredible Eyewitness.” Jurimetrics Journal 15 (3): 188–193.
   Google Scholar
• Loftus, E. F. 1975b. “Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Report.” Cognitive Psychology 7: 560–572.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loftus, E. F. 1975c. “Eyewitness Testimony: The Influence of the Wording of a Question.” Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 5 (1): 86–88.
   Google Scholar
• Loftus, E. F. 2005. “Planting Misinformation in the Human Mind: A 30-Year Investigation of the Malleability of Memory.” Learning & Memory 12 (4): 361–366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loftus, E. F., and M. R. Banaji. 1989. “Memory Modification and the Role of the Media.” In Suggestion and Suggestibility: Theory and Research, edited by V. U. Gheorghiu, P. Netter, H. J. Eysenck, and R. Rosenthal, 279–303. Giessen, Germany: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Loftus, E. F., and J. C. Palmer. 1974. “Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction: An Example of the Interaction Between Language and Memory.” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 13 (5): 585–589.
   Google Scholar
• Loftus, E. F., and G. Zanni. 1975. “Eyewitness Testimony: The Influence of the Wording of a Question.” Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 5 (1): 86–88.
   Google Scholar
• Marsh, B. U., K. Pezdek, and D. H. Ozery. 2016. “The Cross-Race Effect in Face Recognition Memory by Bicultural Individuals.” Acta Psychologica 169: 38–44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthes, J. 2007. “Beyond Accessibility? Toward an On-Line and Memory-Based Model of Framing Effects.” European Journal of Communication Research 32 (1): 51–78.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCloskey, M., and M. Zaragoza. 1985. “Misleading Postevent Information and Memory for Events: Arguments and Evidence Against Memory Impairment Hypotheses.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 114 (1): 1–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milne, R., and R. Bull. 2003. “Interviewing by the Police.” In Handbook of Psychology in Legal Contexts, edited by D. Carson, and R. Bull, 111–125. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Montgomery, M. 2008. “The Discourse of the Broadcast News Interview.” Journalism Studies 9 (2): 260–277.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moy, P., D. Tewksbury, and E. M. Rinke. 2016. “Agenda-Setting, Priming, and Framing.” The International Encyclopedia of Communication Theory and Philosophy, 1–13.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, D. 2019. “Talk to Me: How to Ask Better Questions, Get Better Answers, and Interview Anyone Like a Pro.” HarperPerennial.
   Google Scholar
• Nyhan, B., J. Reifler, and P. A. Ubel. 2012. “The Hazards of Correcting Myths About Health Care Reform.” Medical Care 51 (2): 127–132.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nyland, M. 2011. “The News-Generating Machine.” Journalism Practice 5 (4): 478–491.
   Google Scholar
• Nyman, T. J., J. Antfolk, J. M. Lampinen, M. Tuomisto, J. K. Kaakinen, J. Korkman, and P. Santtila. 2019. “A Stab in the Dark: The Distance Threshold of Target Identification in Low Light.” Cogent Psychology 6 (1): 1632047.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Keefe, D. J. 1987. “The Persuasive Effects of Delaying Identification of High- and Low-Credibility Communicators: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Central States Speech Journal 38: 65–72.
   Google Scholar
• Ost, J., and R. A. Nash. 2016. “Concluding Remarks: Malleable Knowledge About Malleable Memories.” In False and Distorted Memories, edited by R. A. Nash, and J. Ost, 156–160. London, UK: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Otgaar, H., M. L. Howe, N. Brackmann, and T. Smeets. 2016a. “The Malleability of Developmental Trends in Neutral and Negative Memory Illusions.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 145 (1): 31–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otgaar, H., M. L. Howe, N. Brackmann, and J. Wang. 2016b. “When Children are the Worst and Best Eyewitnesses: Factors Behind the Development of False Memory.” In False and Distorted Memories, edited by R. A. Nash, and J. Ost, 23–38. London, UK: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Otgaar, H., P. Muris, M. L. Howe, and H. Merkelbach. 2017. “What Drives False Memories in Psychopathology? A Case for Associative Activation.” Clinical Psychological Science 5 (6): 1048–1069.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oxburgh, G., and J. Ost. 2011. “The Use and Efficacy of Empathy in Police Interviews with Suspects of Sexual Offences: The Use and Efficacy of Empathy in Police Interviews.” Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling 8 (2): 178–188.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oxburgh, G., J. Ost, P. Morris, and J. Cherryman. 2014. “The Impact of Question Type and Empathy on Police Interviews with Suspects of Homicide, Filicide and Child Sexual Abuse.” Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 21 (6): 903–917.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parks, P. 2019. “Naturalizing Negativity: How Journalism Textbooks Justify Crime, Conflict, and “Bad” News.” Critical Studies in Media Communication 36 (1): 75–91.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patihis, L., L. Y. Ho, E. F. Loftus, and M. E. Herrera. 2018. “Memory Experts’ Beliefs About Repressed Memory.” Memory, 1–6. doi:10.1080/09658211.2018.1532521
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pena, M. M., J. Z. Klemfuss, E. F. Loftus, and A. Mindthoff. 2017. “The Effects of Exposure to Differing Amounts of Misinformation and Source Credibility Perception on Source Monitoring and Memory Accuracy.” Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice 4 (4): 337.
   Google Scholar
• Pierce, T., and T. Miller. 2007. “Basic Journalism Skills Remain Important in Hiring.” Newspaper Research Journal 28 (4): 51–61.
   Google Scholar
• Pinto, J. 2008. “Muzzling the Watchdog: The Case of Disappearing Watchdog Journalism from Argentine Mainstream News.” Journalism 9 (6): 750–774.
   Google Scholar
• Primo, A. T. 2008. Eyewitness Newsman. Old Greenwich, CT: Primo News Services.
   Google Scholar
• Qu, S. Q., and J. Dumay. 2011. “The Qualitative Research Interview.” Qualitative Studies in Accounting and Management 8 (3): 238–264.
   Google Scholar
• Rasinski, K. A. 1989. “The Effect of Question Wording on Public Support for Government Spending.” Public Opinion Quarterly 53 (3): 388–394.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhee, J. W. 1997. “Strategy and Issue Frames in Election Campaign Coverage: A Social Cognitive Account of Framing Effects.” Journal of Communication 47 (3): 26–48.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rich, P. R., and M. S. Zaragoza. 2020. “Correcting Misinformation in News Stories: An Investigation of Correction Timing and Correction Durability.” Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 9 (3): 310–322.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheufele, B. 2004. “Framing-Effects Approach: A Theoretical and Methodological Critique.” Communications 29 (4): 401–428.
   Google Scholar
• Schudson, M. 1995. The Power of News. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Searcy, J., J. C. Bartlett, and A. Memon. 2000. “Influence of Post-Event Narratives, Line-Up Conditions and Individual Differences on False Identification by Young and Older Eyewitnesses.” Legal and Criminological Psychology 5 (2): 219–235.
   Google Scholar
• Semin, G. R. 2001. “Language and Social Cognition.” In Blackwell Handbook of Sociology Psychology: Intraindividual Processes, edited by A. Tesser, and N. Schwarz, 159–180. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Semin, G. R., and C. J. De Poot. 1997a. “Bringing Partiality to Light: Question Wording and Choice as Indicators of Bias.” Social Cognition 15 (2): 91–106.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Semin, G. R., and C. J. De Poot. 1997b. “The Question-Answer Paradigm: You Might Regret Not Noticing How a Question is Worded.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73 (3): 472–480.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons, D. J., and C. F. Chabris. 2011. “What People Believe About How Memory Works: A Representative Survey of the U.S. Population.” PLoS One 6 (8): e22757.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soukara, S., R. Bull, A. Vrij, M. Turner, and J. Cherryman. 2009. “What Really Happens in Police Interviews of Suspects? Tactics and Confessions.” Psychology, Crime & Law 15 (6): 493–506.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stenzel, C. 2017. “Eyewitness Misidentification: A Mistake That Blinds Investigations, Sways Juries, and Locks Innocent People Behind Bars.” Creighton Law Review 50 (3): 515–532.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor, S. E., and S. T. Fiske. 1978. “Salience, Attention, and Attribution: Top of the Head Phenomena.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 11: 249–288.
   Google Scholar
• Thompson-Cannino, J., R. Cotton, and E. Torneo. 2010. Picking Cotton: Our Memoir of Injustice and Redemption. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tourangeau, R., L. J. Rips, and K. Rasinski. 2000. The Psychology of Survey Response. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tousignant, J. P., D. Hall, and E. F. Loftus. 1986. “Discrepancy Detection and Vulnerability to Misleading Postevent Information.” Memory & Cognition 14 (4): 329–338.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuchman, G. 1980. Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality. New York, NY: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Turtle, J., J. D. Read, D. S. Lindsay, and C. A. Brimacombe. 2008. “Toward a More Informative Psychological Science of Eyewitness Evidence.” Applied Cognitive Psychology 22 (6): 769–778.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tversky, A., and D. Kahneman. 1973. “Availability: A Heuristic for Judging Frequency and Probability.” Cognitive Psychology 5 (2): 207–232.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Underwood, J., and K. Pezdek. 1998. “Memory Suggestibility as an Example of the Sleeper Effect.” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 5 (3): 449–453.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Velthuis, O. 2015. “The Production of a Newspaper Interview: Following the Story at the Business Desk of a Dutch Daily.” Journalism 17 (7): 1–16.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vornik, L., S. Sharman, and M. Garry. 2003. “The Power of the Spoken Word: Sociolinguistic Cues Influence the Misinformation Effect.” Memory 11 (1): 101–109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wade, K. A., S. J. Nightingale, and M. F. Colloff. 2016. “Photos and Memory.” In False and Distorted Memories, edited by R. A. Nash, and J. Ost, 39–54. London, UK: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Weaver, D. H. 2007. “Thoughts on Agenda Setting, Framing, and Priming.” Journal of Communication 57 (1): 142–147.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberg, H. I., J. Wadsworth, and R. S. Baron. 1983. “Demand and the Impact on Leading Question on Eyewitness Testimony.” Memory & Cognition 11 (1): 101–104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weingardt, K. R., E. Loftus, and D. S. Lindsay. 1995. “Misinformation Revisited: New Evidence on the Suggestibility of Memory.” Memory & Cognition 23 (1): 72–82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wells, G. L., M. B. Kovera, A. B. Douglass, N. Brewer, C. A. Meissner, and J. T. Wixted. 2020. “Policy and Procedure Recommendations for the Collection and Preservation of Eyewitness Identification Evidence.” Law and Human Behavior 44 (1): 3–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wheatcroft, J. M., D. Caruso, and J. Krumrey-Quinn. 2015. “Rethinking Leading: The Directive, Non-Directive Divide.” Criminal Law Review 5: 340–346.
   Google Scholar
• Wixted, J. T., and G. L. Wells. 2017. “The Relationship Between Eyewitness Confidence and Identification Accuracy: A New Synthesis.” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 18 (1): 10–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodbury, H. 1984. “The Strategic Use of Questions in Court.” Semiotica 48 (3-4): 197–228.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaragoza, M. S., K. E. Payment, J. K. Ackil, S. B. Drivdahl, and M. Beck. 2001. “Interviewing Witnesses: Forced Confabulation and Confirmatory Feedback Increase False Memories.” Psychological Science 12 (6): 473–477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zelizer, B. 2018. “Seeing the Present, Remembering the Past: Terror’s Representation as an Exercise in Collective Memory.” Television & New Media 19 (2): 136–145.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar