Virtual enriched environments in paediatric neuropsychological rehabilitation following traumatic brain injury: Feasibility, benefits and challenges

References

• Hawley CA, Ward AB, Long J, Owen DW, Magnay AR. Prevalence of traumatic brain injury amongst children admitted to hospital in one health district: A population-based study. Injury 2003; 34: 256–260
   Google Scholar
• McKinlay A, Grace RC, Horwood LJ, Fergusson DM, Ridder EM, MacFarlane MR. Prevalence of traumatic brain injury among children, adolescents and young adults: Prospective evidence from a birth cohort. Brain Injury 2008; 22: 175–181
   Google Scholar
• Kennard MA. Relation of age to motor impairment in man and in subhuman primates. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 1940; 26: 377–397
   Google Scholar
• Chugani HC, Shewmon D, Shields W. Surgery for intractable infantile spasms: Neuroimaging perspectives. Epilepsia 1993; 34: 764–771
   Google Scholar
• Aram D, Enkleman B. Cognitive profiles of children with early onset unilateral lesions. Developmental Neuropsychology 1986; 2: 155–172
   Google Scholar
• Hart K, Faust D. Prediction of the effects of mild head injury: A message about the Kennard principle. Journal of Clinical Psychology 2006; 44: 780–782
   Google Scholar
• Johnson DA, Rose FD, Brooks BM, Eyers S. Age and recovery from brain injury: Legal opinions, clinical beliefs and experimental evidence. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2003; 18: 342–356
   Google Scholar
• Yager JY, Wright S, Armstrong EA, Jahraus CM, Saucier DM. The influence of aging on recovery following ischemic brain damage. Behavior and Brain Research 2006; 173: 171–180
   Google Scholar
• Anderson V, Catroppa C, Morse S, Haritou F, Rosenfeld J. Functional plasticity or vulnerability after early brain injury?. Paediatrics 2005; 116: 1374–1382
   Google Scholar
• Gil AM. Neurocognitive outcomes following pediatric brain injury: A developmental approach. Journal of School Psychology 2003; 41: 337–353
   Google Scholar
• Rose FD, Brooks BM, Rizzo AA. Virtual reality in brain damage rehabilitation: Review. Cyberpsychology and Behaviour 2005; 8: 243–251
   Google Scholar
• Rizzo A, Schultheis M, Kerns K, Mateer C. Analysis of assets for virtual reality applications in neuropsychology. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation 2004; 14: 207–239
   Google Scholar
• Rose FD, Attree EA, Brooks BM, Johnson DA. Virtual environments in brain damage rehabilitation: A rationale from basic neuroscience. Virtual environments in clinical psychology and neuroscience: Methods and techniques in advanced patient–therapist interaction, G Riva, BK Wiederhold, E Molinari. IOS Press, Amsterdam 1998; 233–242
   Google Scholar
• De Wit L, Putman K, Dejaeger E, Baert I, Berman P, Bogaerts K, Brinkmann N, Connell L, Feys H, Jenni W, et al. Use of time by stroke patients: A comparison of four European rehabilitation centers. Journal of the American Heart Association 2005, Available online at: http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/36/9/1977, Accessed on 23 January 2009
   Google Scholar
• de Azevedo C, Cipreste CF, Young R. Environmental enrichment: A GAP analysis. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 2007; 102: 329–343
   Google Scholar
• Aguirre GK, Detre JA, Alsop DC, D’Esposito M. The parahippocampus subserves topographical learning in man. Cerebral Cortex 1996; 6: 823–829
   Google Scholar
• Maguire EA, Frith CD, Burhess N, Donnett JG, O’Keefe J. Knowing where things are: Parahippocampal involvement in encoding object locations in virtual large scale space. Journal of Cognitive Science 1998; 10: 61–76
   Google Scholar
• Pugnetti L, Mendozzi L, Motta A, Cattaneo A, Barbieri E, Brancotti A. Evaluation and retraining of adults' cognitive impairments: Which role for virtual reality technology?. Computers in Biology and Medicine 1995; 25: 213–227
   Google Scholar
• Rose FD, Attree EA, Brooks BM, Parslow DM, Penn PR, Ambihaipahan N. Training in virtual environments: Transfer to real world and equivalence to real task training. Ergonomics 2001; 43(4): 495–511
   Google Scholar
• Shipman SL, Astur RS. Factors affecting the hippocampal BOLD response during spatial memory. Behavior and Brain Research 2008; 187: 433–441
   Google Scholar
• Parslow DM, Rose FD, Brooks BM, Fleminger S, Gray JA, Giampietro V, Brammer MJ, Williams S, Gasston D, Andrew C, et al. Allocentric spatial memory activation of the hippocampal formation measured using MRI. Neuropsychology 2004; 18: 450–461
   Google Scholar
• Slobounov S, Hallett M, Wu T, Shibasaki H, Newell K. Neural underpinning of postural responses to visual field motion. Biological Psychology 2006; 72: 188–197
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman HG, Richards TL, Bills AR, Van Oostrom T, Magula J, Seibel EJ, Sharar SR. Using fMRI to study the neural correlates of virtual reality analgesia. CNS Spectrums: The International Journal of Neuropsychiatric Medicine 2006; 11: 45–50
   Google Scholar
• Lee J-H, Lim Y, Wiederhold BK. A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study of cue-induced smoking craving in virtual environments. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback 2005; 30: 195–204
   Google Scholar
• You SH, Jang SH, Kim Y-H, Kwon YH, Barrow I, Hallett M. Cortical reorganization induced by virtual reality therapy in a child with hemiparetic cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 2005; 47: 628–635
   Google Scholar
• Jang S, You S, Hallett M, Cho Y, Park C, Cho S, Lee H, Kim T. Cortical reorganization and associated functional motor recovery after virtual reality in patients with chronic stroke: An experimenter-blind preliminary study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2005; 86: 2218–2223
   Google Scholar
• Yen H-L, Wong J. Rehabilitation for traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents. Rehabilitation Medicine 2007; 36: 62–66
   Google Scholar
• Padgett LS, Strickland D, Coles CD. Case study: Using a virtual reality computer game to teach fire safety skills to children diagnosed with foetal alcohol syndrome. Journal of Paediatric Psychology 2006; 31: 65–70
   Google Scholar
• Gold JI, Kim SH, Kant AJ. Effectiveness of virtual reality for pediatric pain distraction during IV placement. Special issue: Virtual and physical toys: Open-ended features for non-formal learning. CyberPsychology & Behavior 2006; 9: 207–212
   Google Scholar
• Parsons TD, Bowerly T, Buckwalter JG, Rizzo A. A controlled clinical comparison of attention performance in children with ADHD in a virtual reality classroom compared to standard neuropsychological methods. Child Neuropsychology 2007; 13: 363–381
   Google Scholar
• De Weerdt W, Selz B, Nuyens G, Staes F, Swinnen D, Van de Winckel A. Time use of stroke patients in an intensive rehabilitation unit: A comparison between a Belgian and a Swiss setting. Disability and Rehabilitation 2000; 22: 181–186
   Google Scholar
• Newall JT, Wood VA, Hewer RL, Tinson DJ. Development of a neurological rehabilitation environment: An observational study. Clinical Rehabilitation 1997; 11: 146–155
   Google Scholar
• Lincoln NB, Willis D, Philips SA, Juby LC, Berman P. Comparison of rehabilitation practice on hospital wards for stroke patients. Stroke 1997; 28: 543–549
   Google Scholar
• Grealy MA, Heffernan D. The rehabilitation of brain injured children: The case for including physical exercise and virtual reality. Developmental Neurorehabilitation 2001; 4: 41–49
   Google Scholar
• Schmitter-Edgecombe M. Effects of traumatic brain injury on cognitive performance: An attentional resource hypothesis in search of data. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 1996; 11: 17–30
   Google Scholar
• Von Steinbuchel N, Poppel E. Domains of rehabilitation a theoretical perspective. Behavioural Brain Research 1993; 56: 1–10
   Google Scholar
• Hebb DO. The effects of early experience on problem-solving at maturity. American Psychology 1947; 2: 306–307
   Google Scholar
• Will B, Galani R, Kelche C, Rosenzweig MR. Recovery from brain injury in animals: Relative efficacy of environmental enrichment, physical exercise or formal training (1990–2002). Progress in Neurobiology 2004; 72: 167–182
   Google Scholar
• Rosenzweig MR, Krech D, Bennett EL. Heredity, environment, brain biochemistry, and learning. Current trends in psychological theory, W Dennis. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh 1961; 87–110
   Google Scholar
• Tarou LR, Bashaw MJ. Maximizing the effectiveness of environmental enrichment: Suggestions from the experimental analysis of behaviour. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 2006; 102: 189–204
   Google Scholar
• Würbel H. Ideal homes? Housing effects on rodent brain and behaviour. Trends in Neuroscience 2001; 24: 207–211
   Google Scholar
• Garner JP. Stereotypes and other abnormal repetitive behaviours: Potential impact on validity, reliability, and replicability of scientific outcomes. ILAR Journal 2005; 46: 106–117
   Google Scholar
• Würbel H, Garner JP. Refinement of rodent research through environmental enrichment and systematic randomization. National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals in Research (NC3Rs) report 2007, Available on-line at: www.nc3rs.org.uk, accessed February 2008
   Google Scholar
• Wolfer DP, Litvin O, Morf S, Nitsch RM, Lipp HP, Würbel H. Laboratory animal welfare: Cage enrichment and mouse behaviour. Nature 2004; 432: 821–822
   Google Scholar
• Cracchiolo JR, Mori T, Nazian SJ, Tan J, Potter H, Arendash GW. Enhanced cognitive activity—over and above social or physical activity—is required to protect Alzheimer's mice against cognitive impairment, reduce A β deposition, and increase synaptic immunoreactivity. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 2007; 88: 277–294
   Google Scholar
• Dahlqvist P, Rönnbäck A, Risedal A, Nergardh R, Johansson IM, Seckl JR, Johansson BB, Olsson T. Effects of postischemic environment on transcription factor and serotonin receptor expression after permanent focal cortical ischemia in rats. Neuroscience 2003; 119: 643–652
   Google Scholar
• Diamond MC, Law F, Rhodes H, Lindner B, Rosenzweig MR, Krech D. Increases in cortical depth and glia numbers in rats subjected to enriched environment. Journal of Computational Neurology 1966; 128: 117–126
   Google Scholar
• Diamond MC, Lindner B, Raymond A. Extensive cortical depth measurements and neuron size increases in the cortex of environmentally enriched rats. Journal of Computational Neurology 1967; 131: 357–364
   Google Scholar
• Kleim JA, Jones TA. Principles of experience-dependent neural plasticity: Implications for rehabilitation after brain damage. Journal of Speech, Language & Hearing Research 2008; 51: 225–239
   Google Scholar
• Nithianantharajah J, Hannan AJ. Enriched environments, experience-dependent plasticity and disorders of the nervous system. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2006; 7: 697–709
   Google Scholar
• Mossberg K, Ayala D, Baker T, Heard J, Masel B. Aerobic capacity after traumatic brain injury: Comparison with a non-disabled cohort. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2007; 88: 315–320
   Google Scholar
• Thornton M, Marshall S, McComas J, Finestone H, McCormick A, Sveistrup H. Benefits of activity and virtual reality based balance exercise programmes for adults with traumatic brain injury: Perceptions of participants and their caregivers. Brain Injury 2005; 19: 989–1000
   Google Scholar
• Cullen N, Chundamala J, Bayley M, Jutai J. The efficacy of acquired brain injury rehabilitation. Brain Injury 2007; 21: 113–132
   Google Scholar
• Zhu SW, Yee BK, Nyffeler M, Winblad B, Feldon J, Mohammed AH. Influence of differential housing on emotional behaviour and neurotrophin levels in mice. Behavioral Brain Research 2006; 169: 10–20
   Google Scholar
• Lippert-Grüner M, Maegele M, Pokorný J, Angelov DN, Švestková O, Wittner M, Trojan S. Early rehabilitation model shows positive effects on neural degeneration and recovery from neuromotor deficits following traumatic brain injury. Physiology Research 2007; 56: 359–368
   Google Scholar
• Johansson BB. Functional and cellular effects of environmental enrichment after experimental brain infarcts. Research in Neurology and Neuroscience 2004; 22: 163–174
   Google Scholar
• Saucier DM, Yager JY, Armstrong EA, Keller A, Shultz S. Enriched environment and the effect of age on ischemic brain damage. Brain Research 2007; 1170: 31–38
   Google Scholar
• Shieh EY, Giza CG, Griesbach GS, Hovda DA. Lateral fluid percussion injury followed by rearing in enriched environment increases cortical dendritic density. Journal of Neurotrauma 2000; 17: 986
   Google Scholar
• Turkstra L, Holland A, Bays G. The neuroscience of recovery and rehabilitation: What have we learned from animal research?. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2003; 84: 604–612
   Google Scholar
• Amaral OB, Vargas RS, Hansel G, Izquierdo I, Souza DO. Duration of environmental enrichment influences the magnitude and persistence of its behavioural effects on mice. Physiology & Behavior 2008; 93: 388–394
   Google Scholar
• Kline S, Malena R, Olsen A, Zafonte R, Sozda C. Early versus delayed environmental enrichment differentially affects functional recovery after experimental traumatic brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2006; 87: 2
   Google Scholar
• DeBow SB, McKenna JE, Kolb B, Colbourne F. Immediate constraint-induced movement therapy causes local hyperthermia that exacerbates cerebral cortical injury in rats. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 2004; 82: 231–237
   Google Scholar
• Humm JL, Kozlowski DA, Bland ST, James DC, Schallert T. Use-dependent exaggeration of brain injury: Is glutamate involved?. Experimental Neurology 1999; 157: 349–358
   Google Scholar
• Meinzer M, Obleser J, Flaisch T, Eulitz C, Rockstroh B. Recovery from aphasia as a function of language therapy in an early bilingual patient demonstrated by fMRI. Neuropsychologia 2007; 45: 1247–1256
   Google Scholar
• Laatsch L, Krisky C. Changes in fMRI activation following rehabilitation of reading and visual processing deficits in subjects with traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury 2006; 20: 1367–1375
   Google Scholar
• Behr KM, Nosper A, Klimmt C, Hartmann T. Some practical considerations of ethical issues in VR research. Presence Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 2005; 14: 668–676
   Google Scholar
• Rizzo AA, Klimchuk D, Mitura R, Bowerly T, Shahabi C, Buckwalter JG. Diagnosing attention disorders in a virtual classroom. IEEE Computer 2004; 37: 87–89
   Google Scholar
• Broeren J, Samuelsson H, Stibrant-Sunnerhagen K. Neglect assessment as an application of virtual reality. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 2007; 116: 157–163
   Google Scholar
• Glover S, Castiello U. Recovering space in unilateral neglect: A neurological dissociation revealed by virtual reality. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2006; 18: 833–843
   Google Scholar
• Matheis RJ, Schultheis MT, Tiersky LA. Is learning and memory different in a virtual environment?. Clinical Neuropsychologist 2007; 21: 146–161
   Google Scholar
• Penn PR, Rose FD, Brooks BM. Virtual reality in everyday memory assessment and rehabilitation: Progress to date and future potential. Annual review of cybertherapy and telemedicine, BK Wiederhold, G Riva, AH Bullinger, 2005; 3: 31–38
   Google Scholar
• Brooks BM, Rose FD, Potter J, Jayawardena S, Morling A. Assessing stroke patients’ prospective memory using virtual reality. Brain Injury 2004; 18: 391–401
   Google Scholar
• Livingstone SA, Skelton RW. Virtual environment navigation tasks and the assessment of cognitive deficits in individuals with brain injury. Behavioural Brain Research 2007; 185: 21–31
   Google Scholar
• Gramann K, Müller HJ, Eick E-M. Evidence of separable spatial representations in a virtual navigation task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 2005; 31: 1199–1223
   Google Scholar
• Penn PR, Rose FD, Johnson DA. The use of virtual reality in the assessment and rehabilitation of executive dysfunction. Brain injury and executive dysfunction, M Oddy, AW Worthington. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2008; 255–283
   Google Scholar
• Titov N, Knight RG. A computer-based procedure for assessing functional cognitive skills in patients with neurological injuries: The virtual street. Brain Injury 2005; 19: 315–322
   Google Scholar
• Henderson A, Korner-Bitensky N, Levin M, Roth EJ. Virtual reality in stroke rehabilitation: A systematic review of its effectiveness for upper limb motor recovery. Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation 2007; 14: 52–61
   Google Scholar
• Holden MK. Virtual environments for motor rehabilitation: Review. Special issue: Use of virtual environments in training and rehabilitation: International perspectives. CyberPsychology & Behaviour 2005; 8: 187–211
   Google Scholar
• Lee J-H, Ku J, Cho W. A virtual reality system for the assessment and rehabilitation of the activities of daily living. CyberPsychology & Behaviour 2003; 6: 383–388
   Google Scholar
• Herrera G, Alcantud F, Jordan R, Blanquer A, Labajo G, De Pablo C. Development of symbolic play through the use of virtual reality tools in children with autistic spectrum disorders: Two case studies. Preview Autism: The International Journal of Research & Practice 2008; 12: 143–157
   Google Scholar
• Jung K-E, Lee H-J, Lee Y-S, Lee J-H. Efficacy of sensory integration treatment based on virtual reality—tangible interaction for children with autism. Annual Review of CyberTherapy and Telemedicine 2006; 4: 45–49
   Google Scholar
• Bryanton C, Bossé J, Brien M. Feasibility, motivation, and selective motor control: Virtual reality compared to conventional home exercise in children with cerebral palsy. CyberPsychology & Behavior 2006; 9: 123–128
   Google Scholar
• Hovorka RM, Virji-Babul N. A preliminary investigation into the efficacy of virtual reality as a tool for rehabilitation for children with Down syndrome. International Journal on Disability and Human Development 2006; 5: 351–355
   Google Scholar
• Leggio MG, Mandolesi L, Federico F, Spirito F, Ricci B, Gelfo F, Petrosini L. Environmental enrichment promotes improved spatial abilities and enhanced dendritic growth in the rat. Behavioural Brain Research 2005; 163: 78–90
   Google Scholar
• Faherty CJ, Kerley D, Smeyne RJ. A Golgi-Cox morphological analysis of neuronal changes induced by environmental enrichment. Developmental Brain Research 2003; 141: 55–61
   Google Scholar
• Duffy SN, Craddock KJ, Abel T, Nguyen PV. Environmental enrichment modifies the PKA-dependence of hippocampal LTP and improves hippocampus-dependent memory. Learning and Memory 2001; 8: 26–34
   Google Scholar
• Kempermann G, Gast D, Gage FH. Neuroplasticity in old age: Sustained fivefold induction of hippocampal neurogenesis by long-term environmental enrichment. Annals of Neurology 2002; 52: 135–143
   Google Scholar
• Bruel-Jungerman E, Laroche S, Rampon C. New neurons in the dentate gyrus are involved in the expression of enhanced long-term memory following environmental enrichment. European Journal of Neuroscience 2005; 21: 513–521
   Google Scholar
• Ickes BR, Pham TM, Sanders LA, Albeck DS, Mohammed AH, Granholm A-C. Long-term environmental enrichment leads to regional increases in neurotrophin levels in rat brain. Experimental Neurology 2000; 164: 45–52
   Google Scholar
• Naka F, Narita N, Okado N, Narita M. Modification of AMPA receptor properties following environmental enrichment. Brain Development 2005; 27: 275–278
   Google Scholar
• Andin J, Hallbeck M, Mohammed AH, Marcusson J. Influence of environmental enrichment on steady-state mRNA levels for EAAC1, AMPA1 and NMDA2A receptor subunits in rat hippocampus. Brain Research 2007; 1174: 18–27
   Google Scholar
• Rampon C, Tang Y-P, Goodhouse J, Shimizu E, Kyin M, Tsien JZ. Enrichment induces structural changes and recovery from nonspatial memory deficits in CA1 NMDAR1-knockout mice. Nature Neuroscience 2000; 3: 238–244
   Google Scholar
• Tang YP, Wang H, Feng R, Kyin M, Tsien JZ. Differential effects of enrichment on learning and memory function in NR2B transgenic mice. Neuropharmacology 2001; 41: 779–790
   Google Scholar
• Bennett JC, McRae PA, Levy LJ, Frick KM. Long-term continuous, but not daily, environmental enrichment reduces spatial memory decline in aged male mice. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 2006; 85: 139–152
   Google Scholar
• Zimmermann A, Stauffacher M, Langhans W, Wurbel H. Enrichment dependent differences in novelty exploration in rats can be explained by habituation. Behavioural Brain Research 2001; 121: 11–20
   Google Scholar
• Elliott BM, Grunberg NE. Effects of social and physical enrichment on open field activity differ in male and female Sprague–Dawley rats. Behavioural Brain Research 2005; 165: 187–196
   Google Scholar
• Marashi V, Barnekow A, Ossendorf E, Sachser N. Effects of different forms of environmental enrichment on behavioral, endocrinological, and immunological parameters in male mice. Hormone Behavior 2003; 43: 281–292
   Google Scholar
• Restivo L, Ferrari F, Passino E, Sgobio C, Bock J, Oostra BA, Bagni C, Ammassari-Teule M. Enriched environment promotes behavioral and morphological recovery in a mouse model for the fragile X syndrome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 2005; 102: 11557–11562
   Google Scholar
• Glass M, van Dellen A, Blakemore C, Hannan AJ, Faull RL. Delayed onset of Huntington's disease in mice in an enriched environment correlates with delayed loss of cannabinoid CB1 receptors. Neuroscience 2005; 123: 207–212
   Google Scholar
• Lazic SE, Grote HE, Blakemore C, Hannan AJ, van Dellen A, Phillips W, Barke RA. Neurogenesis in the R6/1 transgenic mouse model of Huntington's disease: Effects of environmental enrichment. European Journal of Neuroscience 2006; 23: 1829–1838
   Google Scholar
• Gobbo OL, O’Mara SM. Impact of enriched-environment housing on brain-derived neurotrophic factor and on cognitive performance after a transient global ischemia. Behavioural Brain Research 2004; 152: 231–241
   Google Scholar
• Faherty CJ, Raviie Shepherd K, Herasimtschuk A, Smeyne RJ. Environmental enrichment in adulthood eliminates neuronal death in experimental Parkinsonism. Brain Research: Molecular Brain Research 2005; 134: 170–179
   Google Scholar
• Jadavji NM, Kolb B, Metz GA. Enriched environment improves motor function in intact and unilateral dopamine-depleted rats. Neuroscience 2006; 140: 1127–1138
   Google Scholar
• Koh S, Magid R, Chung H, Stine CD, Wilson DN. Depressive behaviour and selective down regulation of serotonin receptor expression after early-life seizures: Reversal by environmental enrichment. Epilepsy & Behaviour 2007; 10: 26–31
   Google Scholar
• Hannigan JH, O’Leary-Moore SK, Berman RF. Postnatal environmental or experiential amelioration of neurobehavioral effects of perinatal alcohol exposure in rats. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 2007; 31: 202–211
   Google Scholar
• Lankhorst AJ, ter Laak MP, van Laar TJ, van Meeteren NL, de Groot JC, Schrama LH, Hamers FP, Gispen WH. Effects of enriched housing on functional recovery after spinal cord contusive injury in the adult rat. Journal of Neurotrauma 2001; 18: 203–215
   Google Scholar
• Robbins JA, Butler SG, Daniels S, Gross RD, Langmore S, Lazarus C, Martin-Harris B, McCabe D, Musson N, Rosenbek J. Neural plasticity, swallowing and dysphagia rehabilitation: Translating principles of neural plasticity into clinically oriented evidence. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 2007; 50: 276–300
   Google Scholar
• Shopland N, Lewis J, Brown DJ, Dattani-Pitt K. Design and evaluation of a flexible travel training environment for use in a supported employment setting. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technology, Oxford, 2004, 69–76
   Google Scholar
• Kwakkel G, Kollen B, Lindeman E. Understanding the pattern of functional recovery after stroke: Facts and theories. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience 2004; 22: 281–299
   Google Scholar
• Celnik PA, Cohen LG. Modulation of motor function and cortical plasticity in health and disease. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience 2004; 22: 261–268
   Google Scholar
• Allred RP, Maldonado MA, Hsu JE, Jones TA. Training the ‘less-affected’ forelimb after unilateral cortical infarcts interferes with functional recovery of the impaired forelimb in rats. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience 2005; 23: 297–302
   Google Scholar
• Kleim JA, Bruneau R, VandenBerg P, MacDonald E, Mulrooney R, Pocock D. Motor cortex stimulation enhances motor recovery and reduces peri-infarct dysfunction following ischemic insult. Neurology Research 2003; 25: 789–793
   Google Scholar
• Morganti F. Virtual interaction in cognitive neuropsychology. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics 2004; 99: 55–70
   Google Scholar
• Monfils MH, Teskey GC. Skilled-learning induced potentiation in rat sensorimotor cortex: A transient form of behavioural long-term potentiation. Neuroscience 2004; 125: 329–336
   Google Scholar
• Biernaskie J, Chernenko G, Corbett D. Efficacy of rehabilitative experience declines with time after focal ischemic brain injury. Journal of Neuroscience 2004; 24: 1245–1254
   Google Scholar
• Kline AE, Wagner AK, Westergom BP, Malena RR, Zafonte RD, Olsen AS, Sozda CN, Luthra P, Panda M, Cheng JP, Aslam HA. Acute treatment with the 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT and chronic environmental enrichment confer neurobehavioral benefit after experimental brain trauma. Behavioural Brain Research 2007; 177: 186–194
   Google Scholar
• Deutsch JE, Lewis JA, Burdea G. Virtual reality-integrated telerehabilitation system: Patient and technical performance. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Virtual Rehabilitation. 2006, 140–144
   Google Scholar
• Weinberger NM. Specific long-term memory traces in primary auditory cortex. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2004; 5: 279–290
   Google Scholar
• Brooks BM, Rose FD, Attree EA, Elliot-Square A. An evaluation of the efficacy of training people with learning disabilities in a virtual environment. Disability and Rehabilitation 2002; 24: 11–12
   Google Scholar
• Lo Priore C, Castelnuovo G, Liccione D, Liccione D. Experience with V-STORE: Considerations on presence in virtual environments for effective neuropsychological rehabilitation of executive functions. Cyberpsychology and Behaviour 2003; 6: 281–287
   Google Scholar
• Burke SN, Barnes CA. Neural plasticity in the ageing brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2006; 7: 30–40
   Google Scholar
• Hummel FC, Cohen LG. Non-invasive brain stimulation: A new strategy to improve neurorehabilitation after stroke?. Lancet Neurology 2006; 5: 708–712
   Google Scholar
• Schultheis MT, Rizzo AA. The application of virtual reality technology in rehabilitation. Rehabilitation Psychology 2001; 46: 296–311
   Google Scholar