Adaptive cycles in the savannah: pastoral specialization and diversification in northern Kenya

References

• Anderson, David M. Eroding the Commons: The Politics of Ecology in Baringo, Kenya. Oxford: Currey, 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, David M. “Some Thoughts on the Nineteenth Century History of the Il Chamus of Baringo District.” Mila 7 (1978): 107–125.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, David M. “The Beginning of Time? Evidence for Catastrophic Drought in Baringo in the Early Nineteenth Century.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 10, no. I (2016): 45–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Archambault, C. “Recreating the Commons under Private Holdings: The Role of Maasai Women in Resource Networks.” International Journal of the Commons (under review).
   Google Scholar
• Becker, Mathias, Miguel Alvarez, Gereon Heller, Paul Leparmarai, Damaris Maina, Itombe Malombe, Michael Bollig, and Hauke Vehrs. “Land Use Changes and the Invasion Dynamics of Shrubs in Baringo.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 10, no. I (2016): 111–129.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beech, M. The Suk: Their Language and Folklore. New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969. ( Originally published, 1911.)
   Google Scholar
• Bollig, M. Die Krieger der Gelben Gewehre: Intra- und Interethnische Konfliktaustragung bei den Pokot Nordwestkenias. Münster: Lit-Verlag, 1992.
   Google Scholar
• Bollig, M. Risk Management in a Hazardous Environment: A Comparative Study of Two Pastoral Societies. New York: Springer, 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Bollig, M. “Resilience – Analytical Tool, Bridging Concept or Development Goal? Anthropological Perspectives on the Use of a Border Object.” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 139 (2014): 253–279.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bollig, M., and M. Österle. “The Political Ecology of Specialisation and Diversification: Long-term Dynamics of Pastoralism in East Pokot District, Kenya.” In Pastoralism in Africa: Past, Present, Future, edited by M. Bollig, M. Schnegg, and H. P. Wotzka, 289–315. New York: Berghahn, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Bollig, M., and M. Österle. “‘We Turned Our Enemies into Baboons’ – Warfare, Ritual and Pastoral Identity among the Pokot of Northern Kenya.” In The Practice of War: Production, Reproduction and Communication of Armed Violence, edited by Rao, M. Bollig, and Bock, 23–51. New York: Berghahn, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Bollig, M., and A. Schulte. “Environmental Change and Pastoral Perceptions: Degradation and Indigenous Knowledge in Two African Pastoral Communities.” Human Ecology 27 (1999): 493–514. doi: 10.1023/A:1018783725398
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conant, Francis P. “Thorns Paired, Sharply Recurved: Cultural Controls and Rangeland Quality in East Africa.” In The Anthropology of Desertification, edited by B. Spooner, 111–122. London: Academic Press, 1982.
   Google Scholar
• Davies, Matthew I. J., and Henrietta L. Moore. “Landscape, Time and Cultural Resilience: A Brief History of Agriculture in Pokot and Marakwet, Kenya.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 10, no. I (2016): 67–87.
   Google Scholar
• Dearing, J. A. “Landscape Change and Resilience Theory: A Palaeoenvironmental Assessment from Yunnan, SW China.” The Holocene 18, no. I (2008): 117–127. doi: 10.1177/0959683607085601
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desta, S., and D. L. Coppock. “Pastoralism Under Pressure: Tracking System Change in Southern Ethiopia.” Human Ecology 32 (2004): 465–486. doi: 10.1023/B:HUEC.0000043516.56037.6b
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dyson-Hudson, R., and D. Meekers. “Migration Across Ecosystem Boundaries.” In Turkana Herders of the Dry Savannah: Ecology and Biobehavioural Response of Nomads to an Uncertain Environment, edited by M. Little and P. Leslie, 303–314. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Fratkin, E. “East African Pastoralism in Transition: Maasai, Boran, and Rendille Cases.” African Studies Review 44, no. III (2001): 1–25. doi: 10.2307/525591
   Google Scholar
• Fratkin, E., and E. A. Roth, eds As Pastoralists Settle: Social, Health, and Economic Consequences of Pastoral Sedentarisation in Marsabit District, Kenya. New York: Springer, 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Galaty, John. “Maasai Expansion and the New East African Pastoralism.” In Being Maasai, edited by Thomas Spear and Richard D. Waller, 61–86. Oxford: James Currey, 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Galaty, John. “The Indigenisation of Pastoral Modernity: Territoriality, Mobility and Poverty in Dryland Africa.” In Pastoralism in Africa. Past, Present and Future, edited by M. Bollig, M. Schnegg, and H. P. Wotzka, 473–510. New York: Berghahn, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Greiner, Clemens. “Unexpected Consequences: Wildlife Conservation and Territorial Conflict in Northern Kenya.” Human Ecology 40, no. 3 (2012): 415–425. doi: 10.1007/s10745-012-9491-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greiner, Clemens, and Innocent Mwaka. “Agricultural Change at the Margins: Adaptation and Intensification in a Kenyan Dryland.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 10, no. I (2016): 130–149.
   Google Scholar
• Gronenborn, D., H. C. Strien, S. Dietrich, and F. Sirocko. “‘Adaptive Cycles’ and Climate Fluctuations: A Case Study from Linear Pottery Culture in Western Central Europe.” Journal of Archaeological Science 51 (2014): 73–83. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2013.03.015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunderson, L. H. and C. S. Holling. Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Hobley, C. W. “Notes on the Geography and People of the Baringo District of the East Africa Protectorate.” Geographical Journal 28 (1906): 471–481. doi: 10.2307/1776031
   Google Scholar
• Hodgson, D. L. “Pastoralism, Patriarchy & History among Maasai in Tanganyika, 1890–1940.” In Rethinking Pastoralism in Africa, edited by D. L. Hodgson, 97–120. Oxford: James Currey, 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Höhnel, L. von. Discovery of Lakes Rudolph and Stefanie. London: Longmans, 1896.
   Google Scholar
• Hogg, Richard. “The New Pastoralism: Poverty and Dependency in Northern Kenya.” Africa 56 (1986): 519–555. doi: 10.2307/1160687
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, Lotte. Moving the Maasai. A Colonial Misadventure. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs, Alan. “Maasai Intertribal Relations: Belligerent Herdsmen or Peaceable Pastoralists.” In Warfare among East African Herders, edited by K. Fukui and David Turton, 33–53. Osaka: National Museum, 1979.
   Google Scholar
• Kerven, Carol. Customary Commerce: A Historical Reassessment of Pastoral Livestock Marketing in Africa. London: Overseas Development Institute, 1992.
   Google Scholar
• Kiage, Lawrence M. “Vegetational Change and Land Degradation in the Lake Baringo Area, Kenya, During the Late Holocene: Evidence from Palaeorecords and Remote Sensing.” PhD thesis, Louisiana State University, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Lamphear, John. “Aspects of ‘Becoming Turkana’: Interactions and Assimilation between Maa- and Ateker Speakers.” In Being Maasai, edited by Thomas Spear and Richard D. Waller, 87–104. Oxford: James Currey, 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Lamphear, John. “The People of the Grey Bull: The Origin and Expansion of the Turkana.” Journal of African History 29 (1988): 27–39. doi: 10.1017/S0021853700023768
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lamphear, John. The Traditional History of the Jie of Uganda. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976.
   Google Scholar
• Lane, Paul. “Trajectories of Pastoralism in Northern and Central Kenya: An Overview of the Archaeological and Environmental Evidence.” In Pastoralism in Africa. Past, Present and Future, edited by Michael Bollig, M. Schnegg, and H. P. Wotzka, 104–144. New York: Berghahn, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Leslie, P., and J. T. McCabe. “Response Diversity and Resilience in Social-Ecological Systems.” Current Anthropology 54, no. 2 (2013): 114–143. doi: 10.1086/669563
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lokuruka, M. N., and P. A. Lokuruka. “Ramifications of the 1918 Turkana Patrol: Narratives by Ngturkana.” Ethnohistory 53 (2006): 121–141. doi: 10.1215/00141801-53-1-121
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCabe, Terrence, P. Leslie, and L. DeLuca. “Adopting Cultivation to Remain Pastoralists: The Diversification of Maasai Livelihoods in Northern Tanzania.” Human Ecology 38, no. 3 (2010): 321–334. doi: 10.1007/s10745-010-9312-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCabe, Terrence, N. Smith, P. Leslie, and A. Teligman. “Livelihood Diversification through Migration among Pastoral People: Contrasting Case Studies of Maasai in Northern Tanzania.” Human Organization 73 (2014): 389–400. doi: 10.17730/humo.73.4.vkr10nhr65g18400
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mkutu, Kennedy. Guns and Governance in the Rift Valley. Pastoralist Conflicts and Small Arms. Oxford: James Currey, 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Österle, M. “From Cattle to Goats: The Transformation of East Pokot Pastoralism in Kenya.” Nomadic Peoples 12 (2008): 81–91. doi: 10.3167/np.2008.120105
   Google Scholar
• Österle, M. “Innovation und Transformation bei den pastoralnomadischen Pokot (East Pokot, Kenia).” PhD thesis, Universität zu Köln, 2008. http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/volltexte/2008/2327/
   Google Scholar
• Redman, C. L. “Resilience Theory in Archaeology.” American Anthropologist 107, no. 1 (2005): 70–77. doi: 10.1525/aa.2005.107.1.070
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redman, C. L., and A. P. Kinzig. “Resilience of Past Landscapes: Resilience Theory, Society, and the Longue Durée.” Conservation Ecology 7, no. 1 (2003): 14. http://www.consecol.org/vol7/iss1/art14/
   Google Scholar
• Resilience Alliance. “Key Concepts: Adaptive Capacities, Adaptive Cycles and Resilience.” 2008. http://www.resalliance.org
   Google Scholar
• Saltlick, A. “Baseline Data Survey in the Nginyang and Tangulbei Divisions of Baringo District, Kenya.” Unpublished manuscript: Isiolo, 1991.
   Google Scholar
• Schneider, Harold K. “Päkot Resistance to Change.” In Continuity and Change in African Cultures, edited by W. R. Bascom and M. J. Herskovits, 144–167. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1959.
   Google Scholar
• Schneider, Harold K. “The Päkot (Suk) of Kenya with Special Reference to the Role of Livestock in their Subsistence Economy.” (PhD thesis, Ann Arbor, University Microfilms, 1957).
   Google Scholar
• Spencer, Paul. The Pastoral Continuum: The Marginalisation of Tradition in East Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Straight, Bilinda, Paul Lane, Charles Hilton, and Musa Letua. “Dust People: Samburu Perspectives on Disaster, Identity, and Landscape.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 10, no. I (2016): 168–188.
   Google Scholar
• Vehrs, H-P. “Changes in Landscape Vegetation, Forage Plant Composition and Herding Structure in the Pastoralist Livelihoods of East Pokot, Kenya.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 10, no. I (2016): 88–110.
   Google Scholar
• Verschuren, Dirk, K. R. Laird, and B. F. Cumming. “Rainfall and Drought in Equatorial East Africa During the Past 1,100 Years.” Nature 403 (2000): 410–414. doi: 10.1038/35000179
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widlok, Thomas, A. Aufgebauer, M. Bradtmöller, R. Dikau, T. Hoffmann, I. Kretschmer, K. Panagiotopoulos et al. “Towards a Theoretical Framework for Analyzing Integrated Socio-Environmental Systems.” Quaternary International 274 (2012): 259–272. doi: 10.1016/j.quaint.2012.01.020
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaal, Fred, and Ton Dietz. “Of Markets, Meat, Maize & Milk: Pastoral Commoditisation in Kenya.” In The Poor Are Not Us: Poverty & Pastoralism in Eastern Africa, edited by David M. Anderson and Vigdis Broch-Due, 163–198. Oxford: James Currey, 1999.
   Google Scholar