“Prevent duty”: empirical reflections on the challenges of addressing far-right extremism within secondary schools and colleges in the UK

References

• Abbas, T., and I. Awan. 2015. “Limits of UK Counterterrorism Policy and Its Implications for Islamophobia and Far Right Extremism.” International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 4 (3): 16–29.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen, C. 2019. “How Might the State’s Response to Radical Right Extremism Challenge Criticisms Attributed to the Prevent Strategy?” Centre for Analysis of the Radical Right, February 11. Accessed 7 July 2020. https://www.radicalrightanalysis.com/2019/02/11/how-might-the-states-response-to-radical-right-extremism-challenge-criticisms-attributed-to-the-prevent-strategy/
   Google Scholar
• Allen, C., A. Isakjee, and Ö. Ögtem-Young. 2019. “Counter-Extremism, PREVENT and the Extreme Right Wing: Lessons Learned and Future Challenges.” LIAS Working Paper Series 2: 1–8.
   Google Scholar
• Ansari, H., and F. Hafez. 2012. From the Far Right to the Mainstream: Islamophobia in Party Politics and the Media. New York: Campus.
   Google Scholar
• Ball, S. J., M. Maguire, and A. Braun. 2012. How Schools Do Policy: Policy Enactments in Secondary Schools. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• BBC. 2019. “UK Terror Threat Level: Risk from Right-wing Extremists to Inform System.” BBC News, July 23. Accessed 14 April 2020. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-49088293
   Google Scholar
• Bjørgo, T., and J. A. Ravndal. 2019. Extreme-Right Violence and Terrorism: Concepts, Patterns, and Responses. The Hague: ICCT.
   Google Scholar
• Bryan, H. 2017. “Developing the Political Citizen: How Teachers are Navigating the Statutory Demands of the Counter-Terrorism and Security Act 205 and the Prevent Duty.” Education, Citizenship and Social Justice 12 (3): 213–226.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burdsey, D. 2011. “Strangers on the Shore? Racialized Representation, Identity and In/visibilities of Whiteness at the English Seaside.” Cultural Sociology 5 (4): 537–552.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busher, J., T. Choudhury, and P. Thomas. 2019. “The Enactment of the Counter-terrorism ‘Prevent Duty’ in British Schools and Colleges: Beyond Reluctant Accommodation or Straightforward Policy Acceptance.” Critical Studies on Terrorism 12 (3): 440–462.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busher, J., T. Choudhury, P. Thomas, and G. Harris. 2017. What the Prevent Duty Means for Schools and Colleges in England: An Analysis of Educationalists Experiences. UK: Aziz Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Busher, L., and L. Jerome. 2020. The Prevent Duty in Education - Impact, Enactment and Implications. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Carter, E. 2018. “Right-wing Extremism/radicalism: Reconstructing the Concept.” Journal of Political Ideologies 23 (2): 157–182.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charmaz, K. 2012. “The Power and Potential of Grounded Theory.” Medical Sociology Online 6 (3): 2–15.
   Google Scholar
• Cifuentes, R., G. R. Whittaker, and L. Lake. 2013. “The Think Project: An Approach to Addressing Racism and Far-Right Extremism in Swansea, South Wales.” Democracy and Security 9 (3): 304–325.
   Google Scholar
• Commission for Countering Extremism. 2019. Challenging Hateful Extremism. UK: Commission for Countering Extremism.
   Google Scholar
• Davies, L. 2016. “Security, Extremism and Education: Safeguarding or Surveillance?” British Journal of Educational Studies 64 (1): 1–19.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dearden, L. 2019. “Spies Brought in to Tackle Far-right Terror Threat in UK, Home Secretary Says.” The Independent, April 9. Accessed 14 April 2020. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/spies-uk-far-right-terror-threat-a8861961.html
   Google Scholar
• Department for Education. 2019. Promoting Fundamental British Values as Part of SMSC in Schools: Departmental Advice for Maintained Schools. (November 2014). London: DfE.
   Google Scholar
• Dudenhoefer, A. L. 2018. “Resisting Radicalisation: A Critical Analysis of the UK Prevent Duty.” Journal for Deradicalization 14: 153–191.
   Google Scholar
• Duriez, B., and B. Soenens. 2009. “The Intergenerational Transmission of Racism: The Role of Right-Wing Authoritarianism and Social Dominance Orientation.” Journal of Research in Personality 43 (5): 906–909.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durodie, B. 2016. “Securitising Education to Prevent Terrorism or Losing Direction?” British Journal of Educational Studies 64 (1): 21–35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elwick, A., and L. Jerome. 2019. “Balancing Securitisation and Education in Schools: Teachers’ Agency in Implementing the Prevent Duty.” Journal of Beliefs & Values 40 (3): 338–353.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grubben, G. 2006. “Right-Extremist Sympathies among Adolescents in the Netherlands.” In Prevention of Right-Wing Extremism, Xenophobia and Racism in European Perspective, edited by P. Rieker, M. Glaser, and S. Schuster, 48–66. Germany, Halle: Deutsches Jugendinstitut e.V.
   Google Scholar
• Heath-Kelly, C. 2017. “The Geography of Pre-criminal Space: Epidemiological Imaginations of Radicalisation Risk in the UK Prevent Strategy, 2007–2017.” Critical Studies on Terrorism 10 (2): 297–319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heath-Kelly, C., and E. Strausz. 2019. “The Banality of Counterterrorism ‘After, after 9/11ʹ? Perspectives on the Prevent Duty from the UK Health Care Sector.” Critical Studies on Terrorism 12 (1): 89–109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hern, A. 2019. “Facebook Bans Far-right Groups Including BNP, EDL and Britain First.” The Guardian, April 18. Accessed 27 June 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/apr/18/facebook-bans-far-right-groups-including-bnp-edl-and-britain-first
   Google Scholar
• Higton, J., R. Patel, I. Mullah, N. Francis, A. Choudhoury, B. Wilkinson, M. Baginsky, and A. van Rij. 2018. Prevent and Counter-extremism in General Further Education Colleges. UK: Department for Education.
   Google Scholar
• Hillyard, P. 1993. Suspect Community: People’s Experience of the Prevention of Terrorism Acts in Britain. London: Pluto Press.
   Google Scholar
• HM Government. 2011. Prevent Strategy. (June, 2011). London: Stationary Office.
   Google Scholar
• HM Government. 2015. Channel Duty Guidance: Protecting Vulnerable People from Being Drawn into Terrorism. London: HM Government.
   Google Scholar
• HM Government. 2018. CONTEST: The United Kingdom’s Strategy for Countering Terrorism. (June, 2018). London: Stationary Office.
   Google Scholar
• HM Government. 2019. “Revised Prevent Duty Guidance: For England and Wales.” Accessed 6 April 2020. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/prevent-duty-guidance/revised-prevent-duty-guidance-for-england-and-wales
   Google Scholar
• Home Office. 2019. Operation of Police Powers under the Terrorism Act 2000 and Subsequent Legislation: Arrests, Outcomes, and Stop and Search, Great Britain, Quarterly Update to December 2018, Home Office Statistical Bulletin 05/19. (March 2019). London: Home Office.
   Google Scholar
• Home Office. 2019a. “Prevent and Channel Factsheet.” Accessed 6 April 2020 https://homeofficemedia.blog.gov.uk/2019/12/19/prevent-and-channel-factsheet/
   Google Scholar
• Home Office. 2019b. Individuals Referred to and Supported through the Prevent Programme, England and Wales, April 2018 to March 2019. (December, 2019). London: Home Office.
   Google Scholar
• Home Office. 2020. Operation of Police Powers under the Terrorism Act 2000 and Subsequent Legislation: Arrests, Outcomes, and Stop and Search Great Britain, Year Ending December 2019. (March, 2020). London: Home Office.
   Google Scholar
• Hope Not Hate. 2020. State of Hate 2020. Far Right Terror Goes Global. UK: Hope Not Hate.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson, P., and M. Feldman. 2011. The EDL: Britain’s ‘New Fair Right’ Social Movement. UK: University of Northampton.
   Google Scholar
• James, N. 2020a. “Implementing the Prevent Duty: Conceptualising Threat within Greater Manchester’s Further Education Sector.” Doctoral Thesis.UK: University of Leeds.
   Google Scholar
• James, N. 2020b. “Enacting the Prevent Duty in Further Education.” In The Prevent Duty in Education - Impact, Enactment and Implications, edited by J. Busher and L. Jerome, 139–158. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Jerome, L., A. Elwick, and R. Kazim. 2019. “The Impact of the Prevent Duty on Schools: A Review of the Evidence.” British Educational Research Journal 45 (4): 821–837.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelman, H. C. 1958. “Compliance, Identification and Internalization: Three Processes of Attitude Change.” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 2 (1): 51–60.
   Google Scholar
• Krasenberg, J., S. Lenos, and N. Sterkenburg. 2019. RAN EDU Academy: Far-right Extremism in the Classroom. Brussels: Radicalisation Awareness Network, European Commission.
   Google Scholar
• Kundnani, A. 2009. Spooked! How Not to Prevent Violent Extremism. London: Institute of Race Relations.
   Google Scholar
• Kundnani, A. 2015. A Decade Lost: Rethinking Radicalisation and Extremism. London: Claystone.
   Google Scholar
• Kyriacou, C., B. Szczepek Reed, F. Said, and I. Davies. 2017. “British Muslim University Students’ Perceptions of Prevent and Its Impact on Their Sense of Identity.” Education, Citizenship and Social Justice 12 (2): 97–110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakhani, S. 2012. “Preventing Violent Extremism: Perceptions of Policy from Grassroots and Communities.” The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice 51 (2): 190–206.
   Google Scholar
• Lakhani, S. 2014. “Radicalisation as A Moral Career: A Qualitative Study of How People Become Terrorists in the United Kingdom.” PhD diss., Cardiff University.
   Google Scholar
• Lakhani, S. 2020. “Social Capital and the Enactment of Prevent Duty: An Empirical Case-study of Schools and Colleges.” Critical Studies on Terrorism. doi:10.1080/17539153.2020.1810989.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, B. 2017. CREST Guide: Understanding the Far-Right Landscape. UK: CREST.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, B. 2019. Overview of the Far Right. UK: Lancaster University.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis, R. 2018. Alternative Influence. UK: Data & Society.
   Google Scholar
• Lowe, D. 2017. “Prevent Strategies: The Problems Associated in Defining Extremism: The Case of the United Kingdom.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 13 (3): 245–258.
   Google Scholar
• Lundie, D. C. 2019. “Building a Terrorist House on Sand: A Critical Incident Analysis of Interprofessionality and the Prevent Duty in Schools in England.” Journal of Beliefs & Values 40 (3): 321–337.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Macklin, G. 2018. “‘Only Bullets Will Stop Us!’ – The Banning of National Action in Britain.” Perspectives on Terrorism 12 (6): 104–122.
   Google Scholar
• Macklin, G. 2019. “The Evolution of Extreme-Right Terrorism and Efforts to Counter It in the United Kingdom.” CTC Sentinel 12 (1): 15–20.
   Google Scholar
• McGlynn, C., and S. McDaid. 2019. “Radicalisation and Higher Education: Students’ Understanding and Experiences.” Terrorism and Political Violence 31 (3): 559–576.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miah, S. 2017. Muslims, Schooling and Security: Trojan Horse, Prevent and Racial Politics. Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Moffat, A., and F. J. Gerard. 2019. “Securitising Education: An Exploration of Teachers’ Attitudes and Experiences regarding the Implementation of the Prevent Duty in Sixth Form Colleges.” Critical Studies on Terrorism 1–21. doi:10.1080/17539153.2019.1629860.
   Google Scholar
• Mondon, A., and A. Winter. 2020. Reactionary Democracy: How Racism and the Populist Far Right Became Mainstream. London: Verso.
   Google Scholar
• Mudde, C. 1995. “Right-wing Extremism Analyzed.” European Journal of Political Research 27 (2): 203–224.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mudde, C. 2019. The Far Right Today. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
   Google Scholar
• Murphy, J., and D. Devine. 2018. “Does Media Coverage Drive Public Support for UKIP or Does Public Support for UKIP Drive Media Coverage?” British Journal of Political Science 50: 893–910.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nesdale, D., A. Maass, K. Durkin, and J. Griffiths. 2005. “Group Norms, Threat, and Children’s Racial Prejudice.” Child Development 76 (3): 652–663.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Donnell, A. 2016. “Securitisation, Counterterrorism and the Silencing of Dissent: The Educational Implications of Prevent.” British Journal of Educational Studies 64 (1): 53–76.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pantazis, C., and S. Pemberton. 2009. “From the ‘Old’ to the ‘New’ Suspect Community: Examining the Impacts of Recent UK Counter-Terrorist Legislation.” British Journal of Criminology 49 (5): 646–666.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parliament, UK. 2015. “Counter-terrorism and Security Act.” Accessed 6 April 2020. http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/6/contents/enacted
   Google Scholar
• Pearson, E. 2019. “Extremism and Toxic Masculinity: The Man Question Re-posed.” International Affairs 95 (6): 1251–1270.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pels, T., and D. J. de Ruyter. 2012. “The Influence of Education and Socialization on Radicalization: An Exploration of Theoretical Presumptions and Empirical Research.” Child & Youth Care Forum 41 (3): 311–325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pisoiu, D. 2012. Islamist Radicalisation in Europe: An Occupational Change Process. New York: Routledge
   Google Scholar
• Polakow-Suransky, S. 2017. Go Back to Where You Came From: The Backlash against Immigration and the Fate of Western Democracy. London: Hurst & Company.
   Google Scholar
• Quinn, B., J. Grierson, and D. Gayle. 2019. “Far-right Terrorists are One Step Ahead of You in UK, Police Told.” The Guardian, April 5. Accessed 7 May 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/apr/05/far-right-terrorists-one-step-ahead-police-hope-not-hate
   Google Scholar
• Ramsay, P. 2017. “Is Prevent a Safe Space?” Education, Citizenship and Social Justice 12 (2): 143–158.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rawlinson, K. 2018. “Tommy Robinson Permanently Banned by Twitter.” The Guardian, March 28. Accessed 27 June 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/mar/28/tommy-robinson-permanently-banned-twitter-violating-rules-hateful-conduct
   Google Scholar
• Revell, L., and H. Bryan. 2018. Fundamental British Values in Education: Radicalisation, National Identity and Britishness. Bingley: Emerald Publishing Limited.
   Google Scholar
• Richards, A. 2019. “Defining Terrorism.” In Routledge Handbook of Terrorism and Counterterrorism, edited by A. Slike, 13–21. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Rights Watch UK. 2016. Preventing Education? Human Rights and UK Counter Terrorism Policy in Schools. UK: Rights Watch UK.
   Google Scholar
• Ritchie, J., J. Lewis, and G. Elam. 2003. “Designing and Selecting Samples.” In Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers, edited by J. Ritchie and J. Lewis, 77–108. London: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Schwartz, C., M. Simon, D. Hudson, and J. VanHeerde Hudson. 2019. “A Populist Paradox? How Brexit Softened Anti-immigration Attitudes.” British Journal of Political Science 1–21.
   Google Scholar
• Sieckelinck, S., F. Kaulingfreks, and M. De Winter. 2015. “Neither Villains nor Victims: Towards an Educational Perspective on Radicalisation.” British Journal of Educational Studies 63 (3): 329–343.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinclair, S., E. Dunn, and B. Lowery. 2005. “The Relationship between Parental Racial Attitudes and Children’s Implicit Prejudice.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 41 (3): 283–289.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sjøen, M. M., and S. H. Jore. 2019. “Preventing Extremism through Education: Exploring Impacts and Implications of Counter-radicalisation Efforts.” Journal of Beliefs & Values 40 (3): 269–283.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, L., and A. Soni. 2017. “Preventing Radicalisation: A Systematic Review of Literature considering the Lived Experiences of the UK’s Prevent Strategy in Educational Settings.” Pastoral Care in Education 35 (4): 241–252.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weeden, K. A., and D. B. Grusky. 2005. “The Case for a New Class Map.” American Journal of Sociology 111 (1): 141–212.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winter, A. 2019. “Online Hate: From the Far-Right to the ‘Alt-right’ and from the Margins to the Mainstream.” In Online Othering Exploring Digital Violence and Discrimination on the Web, edited by K. Lumsden and E. Harmer, 39–63. Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar