“Framing” contentious activism: a sociological analysis of Boko Haram’s ideology, through its discourse (2008 – 2016)

References

• Adebajo, K. 2021. “How Did Abubakar Shekau Die? Here’s What We Know So Far.” HumAngel Accessed May 21, 2021. https://bit.ly/3uARZDR.
   Google Scholar
• Adeoye, A. 2012. Author’s Interview with JTF ORO Police Component Commander and Chief Superintendent of Police (CSP), Aderemi Adeoye. Maiduguri.
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed. 2012. Author’s Interview with DSS Borno State Director, and Head of the JTF ORO DSS Component, Ahmed. Maiduguri.
   Google Scholar
• Al-Tamimi, A. 2018. “Cutting Out the Tumour from the Khawarij of Shekau by the Allegiance Pledge of the People of Nobility by the Two Brothers, the Sons of Sheikh Abu Yusuf Al-Barnawi, May God Protect Them.” Pundicity Informed Opinion & Review. Accessed August 7, 2018. https://www.aymennjawad.org/21467/the-islamic-state-west-africa-province-vs-abu.
   Google Scholar
• Alvi, H. 2014. “The Diffusion of Intra-Islamic Violence and Terrorism: The Impact of the Proliferation of Salafi/Wahhabi Ideologies.” Middle East 18 (2): 38–50.
   Google Scholar
• Amaechi, K. E. 2017. “From Non-Violent Protests to Suicide Bombing: Social Movement Theory Reflections on the Use of Suicide Violence in the Nigerian Boko Haram.” Journal for the Study of Religion 30 (1): 52–77. https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3027/2017/v30n1a3.
   Google Scholar
• Archetti, C. 2013. “The Problems with Terrorism Research.” In Understanding Terrorism in the Age of Global Media, London: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137291387_2.
   Google Scholar
• Benford, R. D., and D. A. Snow. 2000. “Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment.” Annual Review of Sociology 26 (1): 611–639. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.611.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouvier, G., and D. Machin. 2018. “Critical Discourse Analysis and the Challenges and Opportunities of Social Media.” Review of Communication 18 (3): 178–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/15358593.2018.1479881.
   Google Scholar
• Breeze, R. 2011. “Critical Discourse Analysis and Its Critics.” Pragmatics 21 (4): 493–525. https://doi.org/10.1075/prag.21.4.01bre.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brigaglia, A. 2015a. “13 Years Later the Question Remains: Who is Boko Haram?” Ventures Africa. Accessed May 10, 2021. https://bit.ly/3oIejKx.
   Google Scholar
• Brigaglia, A. 2015b. “The Volatility of Salafi Political Theology, the War on Terror and the Genesis of Boko Haram.” Diritto e questioni pubbliche 15 (2): 175201.
   Google Scholar
• Bukarti, A. B. 2020. “The Origins of Boko Haram—And Why It Matters.” January 13. Accessed June 30, 2021. https://bit.ly/34xFhvd.
   Google Scholar
• Comolli, V. 2015. Boko Haram: Nigeria’s Islamist Insurgency. London: Hurst Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Cook, D. 2018a. “Introduction.” In The Boko Haram Reader: From Nigerian Preachers to the Islamic State, edited by A. Kassim and M. Nwankpa, 1–5. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cook, D., Trans. 2018b. “Letter from Disaffected Members of Boko Haram to AQIM Critiquing Shekau.” In The Boko Haram Reader: From Nigerian Preachers to the Islamic State, edited by A. Kassim and M. Nwankpa, 235–239, Oxfrod: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dawson, L. L., and A. Amarasingam. 2017. “Talking to Foreign Fighters: Insights into the Motivations for Hijrah to Syria and Iraq.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 40 (3): 191–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2016.1274216.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Della Porta, D., and M. Diani, eds. 2014. The Oxford Handbook of Social Movements. UK: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Doug, M., J. D. McCarthy, and M. N. Zald. 1996. Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• EUAA (European Union Agency for Asylum). 2021. “Boko Haram, including JAS, ISWAP and Ansaru.” Accessed May 26, 2023. https://tinyurl.com/vsj8bcu9.
   Google Scholar
• Fairclough, N. 1989. Language and Power. London: Longman.
   Google Scholar
• Fairclough, N. 1996. “A Reply to Henry Widdowson’s ‘Discourse Analysis: A Critical View’.” Language and Literature 5 (1): 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/096394709600500105.
   Google Scholar
• Feather, N. 1982. Expectations and Actions: Expectancy- Value Models in Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Forest, J. J. 2012. Confronting the Terrorism of Boko Haram in Nigeria. Florida: Joint Special Operations University (JSOU).
   Google Scholar
• Francesca, P., and J. M. Jasper. 2001. “Collective Identity and Social Movements.” Annual Review of Sociology 27 (1): 283–305. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.283.
   Google Scholar
• Gamson, W. A. 1992. Talking Politics. Cambridge [England]; New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ghobadzdeh, N., and S. Akbarzadeh. 2015. “Sectarianism and the Prevalence of ‘Othering’ in Islamic Thought.” Third World Quarterly 36 (4): 691–704. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1024433.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillan, K. 2008. “Understanding Meaning in Movements: A Hermeneutic Approach to Frames and Ideologies.” Social Movement Studies 7 (3): 247–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/14742830802485643.
   Google Scholar
• Goffman, E. 1974. Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hammersley, M. 1997. “On the Foundations of Critical Discourse Analysis.” Language & Communication 17 (3): 237–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0271-5309(97)00013-X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hellmich, C. 2008. “Creating the Ideology of Al Qaeda: From Hypocrites to Salafi-Jihādists.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 31 (2): 111–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100701812852.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingram, H. J. 2016b. The Charismatic Leadership Phenomenon in Radical and Militant Islamism. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Johnston, H., ed. 2013. “A Methodology for Frame Analysis: From Discourse to Cognitive Schemata.” In Social Movements and Culture, 217–246. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Kassim, A., and J. Zenn. 2017. “Justifying War: The Salafi-Jihādi Appropriation of Sufi Jihād in the Sahel-Sahara.” Current Trends in Islamist Ideology. Hudson Institute. http://tinyurl.com/bdfyvstc.
   Google Scholar
• Kavrakis, K. 2023. “Identity and Ideology Through the Frames of Al-Qaeda and Islamic State.” Terrorism and Political Violence 35 (5): 1235–1252. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2022.2035366.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinnvall, C. 2004. “Globalisation and Religious Nationalism: Self, Identity, and the Search for Ontological Security.” Political Psychology 25 (5): 741–767. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2004.00396.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klandermans, B. 2004. ”The Demand and Supply of Participation: Social- Psychological Correlates of Participation in Social Movements.” The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule, and H. Kriesi, 360–379. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1111/b.9780631226697.2003.00017.x.
   Google Scholar
• Lavine, M., J. A. Cobb, and C. J. Roussin. 2017. “When Saying Less is Something New: Social Movements and Frame-Contraction Processes.” Mobilisation 22 (3): 275–292. https://doi.org/10.17813/1086-671X-20-3-275.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindekilde, L., and K. Lene. 2014. “Religious Revivalism and Social Movements.” In The Oxford Handbook of Social Movements, edited by D. D. Porta and M. Diani, 173–184. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Loimeier, R. 1997. Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria (Islam and Society in Africa). Evanston, United States: Northwestern University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mohammed, K. 2014. “The Message and Methods of Boko Haram.” In Boko Haram: Islamism, Politics, Security and the State in Nigeria, edited by M.-A.-P. de Montclos, 9–32. Leiden: African Studies Centre.
   Google Scholar
• New York Times. 2014. “Boko Haram Leader Abubakar Shekau: “Kill, Kill, Kill!”YouTube video, Filmed. Accessed May 5, 2014.” www.youtube.com.
   Google Scholar
• NSCIA (Nigerian Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs) n.d. “Objectives”. Accessed June 4, 2021. https://bit.ly/3uRqbv9.
   Google Scholar
• Nur, M. 2018. “Exposé: An Open Letter to Abubakar Shekau.” In The Boko Haram Reader: From Nigerian Preachers to the Islamic State, edited by A. Kassim and M. Nwankpa, 445–466, Oxofrd: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nur, M. M., and M. Yusuf. 2018. “Returning to the Qur’an and citingSunna: Lecture by Muhammad Mamman Nur and Muhammad Yusuf.” In The Boko Haram Reader: From Nigerian Preachers to the Islamic State, edited by A. Kassim and M. Nwankpa, 151–164. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nwankpa, M. 2015. Boko Haram: Whose Islamic State? Houston: James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy.
   Google Scholar
• Omeni, A. 2019. Insurgency and War in Nigeria: Regional Fracture and the Fight Against Boko Haram. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
   Google Scholar
• Omeni, A. 2022. “Lies or Half-Truths? Boko Haram’s Ideology from a Social Movement Theory Perspective.” African Security Review 31 (2): 174–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2022.2027253.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pantami, I. A. 2015. “Theology and Jurisprudence in the Ideological Framework of Current Insurgencies.” In Paper at Regional Conference on Islam, The Centre for Regional Integration and Development, Assembly of Muslims In Nigeria (AMIN), Abuja, Arewa House, Ahmadu Bello University Kaduna.
   Google Scholar
• Pieri, Z. P., and J. Zenn. 2016. “The Boko Haram Paradox: Ethnicity, Religion, and Historical Memory in Pursuit of a Caliphate.” African Security 9 (1): 66–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/19392206.2016.1132906.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piscatori, J. 2000. Islam, Islamism and the Electoral Principle in the Middle East. Leiden: Institute for the Study of Islam and Modernity.
   Google Scholar
• Rogers, B., and P. Neumann. 2007. Recruitment and Mobilisation for the Islamist Militant Movement in Europe. London: Kings College London.
   Google Scholar
• Rosiny, S. 2015. “The Rise and Demise of the is Caliphate.” Middle East Policy 22 (2): 94–107. https://doi.org/10.1111/mepo.12131.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shekau, A. 2018a. “Hādhihi “Aqīdatunā (This Is Our Creed).” In The Boko Haram Reader: From Nigerian Preachers to the Islamic State, edited by A. Kassim and M. Nwankpa, 139–146. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Shekau, A. 2018b. “Western Civilization is Atheism and Anti-Islam.” In The Boko Haram Reader: From Nigerian Preachers to the Islamic State, edited by A. Kassim and M. Nwankpa, 117–129. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Silke, A., ed. 2003. ”The Psychology of Suicidal Terrorism.” Terrorists, Victims and Society: Psychological Perspectives on Terrorism and Its Consequences, 93–108. Chester,UK: John Wiley&sons Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470713600.ch5.
   Google Scholar
• Snow, D. A. 2004. “Framing Processes, Ideology, and Discursive Fields.” The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements 1:380–412. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470999103.ch17.
   Google Scholar
• Snow, D. A., and R. D. Benford. 1988. “Ideology, Frame Resonance, and Participant Mobilisation.” International Social Movement Research 1 (1): 197–217.
   Google Scholar
• Snow, D. A., and S. Byrd. 2007. “Ideology, Framing Processes, and Islamic Terrorist Movements.” Mobilisation: An International Quarterly 12 (2): 119–136. https://doi.org/10.17813/maiq.12.2.5717148712w21410.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snow, D. A., R. Vliegenthart, and P. Ketelaars. 2018. “The Framing Perspective on Social Movements: Its Conceptual Roots and Architecture.” In The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule, H. Kriesi, and H. J. McCammon, 392–410. 1st ed. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119168577.ch22.
   Google Scholar
• Thurston, A. 2016. Salafism in Nigeria: Islam, Preaching, and Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Toolan, M. 1997. “What is Critical Discourse Analysis and Why are People Saying Such Terrible Things About It?1.” Language and Literature 6 (2): 83–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/096394709700600201.
   Google Scholar
• Umar, M. S. 2012. “The Popular Discourses of Salafi Radicalism and Salafi Counter-Radicalism in Nigeria: A Case Study of Boko Haram.” Journal of Religion in Africa 42 (2): 118–144. https://doi.org/10.1163/15700666-12341224.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Leeuwen, T. 1993. “Genre and Field in Critical Discourse Analysis: A Synopsis.” Discourse&society 4 (2): 193–223. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926593004002004.
   Google Scholar
• Walker, A. 2012. “What is Boko Haram? Special Report.” Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace. Accessed June 6, 2021. https://bit.ly/3geDZdZ.
   Google Scholar
• Wehr, H. 1979. A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Weiss, G., and R. Wodak. 2002. “Introduction: Theory, Interdisciplinarity and Critical Discourse Analysis.” In Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity, edited by G. Weiss and R. Wodak, 1–32. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Westphal, J. 2018. “Violence in the Name of God? A Framing Processes Approach to the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria.” Social Movement Studies 17 (1): 19–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2017.1381594.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widdowson, H. 1995. “Discourse Analysis: A Critical View.” Language and Literature 4 (3): 157–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/096394709500400301.
   Google Scholar
• Wiktorowicz, Q., ed. 2003. Islamic Activism: A Social Movement Theory Approach. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Yapp, M. E. 2004. “Review Article: Islam and Islamism.” Middle Eastern Studies 40 (2): 161–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/00263200412331302027.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yusuf, M. 2009. “Audio Explanation of Hadhihi, “Aqeedatuna Wa Manhaj Da’watina” [Audio Explanation of This is Our Creed and Methodology of Our Call]. 2nd edition. Maktabah al-Ghuraba, 1430 AH. Translated by Bulama Bukarti. Accessed June 4, 2021. https://bit.ly/2RjFI9m.
   Google Scholar
• Yusuf, M. 2018a. “Exegesis of Surat Al-Tabwa (Qur’an 9:9-16).” In The Boko Haram Reader: From Nigerian Preachers to the Islamic State, edited by A. Kassim and M. Nwankpa, 49–57. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Yusuf, M. 2018b. “Open Letter to the Nigerian Government or Declaration of War.” In The Boko Haram Reader: From Nigerian Preachers to the Islamic State, edited by A. Kassim and M. Nwankpa, 179–198. Oxford: Oxford University.
   Google Scholar
• Zenn, J. 2020. Unmasking Boko Haram: Exploring Global Jihād in Nigeria. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
   Google Scholar