On-farm cocoa yields increase with canopy cover of shade trees in two agro-ecological zones in Ghana

References

• Adu, S. V. (1992). Soils of the Kumasi region, Ashanti region, Ghana (Memoir no. 8). Accra: Ghana Soil Research Institute, p. 141.
   Google Scholar
• Adu-Ampomah, Y., Frimpong, E. B., Abitey, M. A., Ofori-Frimpong, K., Opoku, G., & Yeboah, S. B. (1998). Occurrence and distribution of light crop (category G) beans in the main crop season (Technical report). Accra: Ghana Cocoa Board, p. 24.
   Google Scholar
• Ahenkorah, Y., Akrofi, G. S., & Adri, A. K. (1974). The end of the first shade and manurial experiment at the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana. Journal of Horticultural Science, 49, 43–51. doi: 10.1080/00221589.1974.11514550
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahenkorah, Y., Halm, B. J., Appiah, M. R., Akrofi, G. S., & Yirenkyi, J. E. K. (1987). Twenty years’ results from a shade and fertilizer trial on Amazon cocoa (theobroma cacao) in ghana. Experimental Agriculture, 23, 31–39. doi: 10.1017/S0014479700003380
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alvim, P. D. T. (1977). Ecological and physiological determinants of cacao yield. 5th international cocoa research conference (pp. 25–38). Ibadan-Nigeria.
   Google Scholar
• Andres, C., Blaser, W. J., Dzahini-Obiatey, H. K., Ameyaw, G. A., Domfeh, O. K., Awiagah, M. A., … Six, J. (2018). Agroforestry systems can mitigate the severity of cocoa swollen shoot virus disease. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 252, 83–92. doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2017.09.031
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aneani, F., & Ofori-Frimpong, K. (2013). An analysis of yield gap and some factors of cocoa (Theobroma cacao) yields in Ghana. Sustainable Agriculture Research, 2, 17.
   Google Scholar
• Anim-Kwapong, G. J. (2006, August). Potential of planted and natural tree fallows for rehabilitation of degraded cocoa farmlands in Ghana. Paper presented at conference on extending cacao for biodiversity conservation, Kumasi, Ghana.
   Google Scholar
• Appiah, M., Sackey, R., Ofori-Frimpong, S. T. K., & Afrifa, A. A. (1997). The consequences of cocoa production on soil fertility in Ghana: A review. Ghana Journal of Agricultural Science, 30, 183–190. doi: 10.4314/gjas.v30i2.1970
   Google Scholar
• Asare, R., Afari-Sefa, V., Gyamfi, I., Okafor, C., & Mva Mva, J. (2010). Cocoa seed multiplication: An assessment of seed gardens in Cameroon, Ghana and Nigeria (STCP working paper series 11). Accra: International Institute of Tropical Agriculture – Sustainable Tree Crops Program, p. 53.
   Google Scholar
• Asare, R., Afari-Sefa, V., Osei-Owusu, Y., & Pabi, O. (2014). Cocoa agroforestry for increasing forest connectivity in a fragmented landscape in Ghana. Agroforestry Systems, 88, 1143–1156. doi: 10.1007/s10457-014-9688-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asare, R., Asare, R. A., Asante, W., Markussen, B., & Ræbild, A. (2017). Influences of shading and fertilization on on-farm yields of cocoa in Ghana. Experimental Agriculture, 53(3), 416–431. doi: 10.1017/S0014479716000466
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asare, R., & Raebild, A. (2016). Tree diversity and canopy cover in cocoa systems in Ghana. New Forests, 47, 287–302. doi: 10.1007/s11056-015-9515-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asare, R. A. (2010). Cocoa establishment and shade management in Ghana’s Ashanti region: Understanding the main factors driving farmers’ decision processes and practices (Doctoral dissertation). Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
   Google Scholar
• Asare, R. A. (2014). Understanding and defining climate-smart cocoa: Extension, inputs, yields and farming practices (Climate-smart cocoa working group). Accra: Nature Conservation Research Centre and Forest Trends.
   Google Scholar
• Baah, F., Anchirinah, V., & Amon-Armah, F. (2011). Soil fertility management practices of cocoa farmers in the eastern region of Ghana. Agriculture and Biology Journal of North America . ISSN Print: 2151-7517, ISSN Online: 2151-7525. doi: 10.5251/abjna.2011.2.1.173.181
   Google Scholar
• Beer, J. (1987). Advantages, disadvantages and desirable characteristics of shade trees for coffee, cacao and tea. Agroforestry Systems, 5, 3–13. doi: 10.1007/BF00046410
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beer, J., Muschler, R., Kass, D., & Somarriba, E. (1998). Shade management in coffee and cacao plantations. In Directions in tropical agroforestry research (pp. 139–164). Indianapolis, IN: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Berry, S. (1992). Hegemony on a shoestring: Indirect rule and access to agricultural land. Africa, 62, 327–355. doi: 10.2307/1159747
   Google Scholar
• Blozan, W. (2006). Tree measuring guidelines of the eastern native tree society. Bulletin of the Eastern Native Tree Society, 1, 3–10.
   Google Scholar
• Box, G. E. P., & Cox, D. R. (1964). An analysis of transformations. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series B (Methodological), 26(2), 211–252. doi: 10.1111/j.2517-6161.1964.tb00553.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bramner, H. (1962). Soils. In J. Wills (Ed.), Agriculture and land use in Ghana (p. 495). London: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Burnham, K. P., & Anderson, D. R. (2002). Model selection and multimodel inference. New York, NY: Springer verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, C. A. M. (1984). The influence of overhead shade and fertilizers on the Homoptera of mature upper-amazon cocoa trees in Ghana. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 74, 163–174. doi: 10.1017/S0007485300010038
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CSCWG. (2011). The case and pathway towards a climate-smart cocoa future for Ghana (Technical report). Accra: Climate-Smart Cocoa Working Group. Nature Conservation Research Centre and Forest Trends.
   Google Scholar
• Cunningham, R. K., & Arnold, P. W. (1962). The shade and fertiliser requirements of cacao (theobroma cacao) in ghana. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 13, 213–221. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.2740130401
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiFalco, S., & Perrings, C. (2003). Crop genetic diversity, productivity and stability of agroecosystems. A theoretical and empirical investigation. Scottish Journal of Political Economy, 50, 207–216. doi: 10.1111/1467-9485.5002006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duguma, B., Gockowski, J., & Bakala, J. (2001). Smallholder cacao (Theobroma cacao Linn.) cultivation in agroforestry systems of west and Central Africa: Challenges and opportunities. Agroforestry Systems, 51, 177–188. doi: 10.1023/A:1010747224249
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• FAO. (2013). Climate-smart agriculture sourcebook. Rome: Author. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3325e/i3325e.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• FAO–UNESCO. (1988). FAO–UNESCO soil map of the world—revised legend (FAO world soil resources report 60). Wageningen: International Soil Reference and Information Centre.
   Google Scholar
• Gerritsma, W., & Wessel, M. (1994, October). Calculated yield trends of cocoa in different countries. Malaysian international cocoa conference, Malaysia.
   Google Scholar
• Gockowski, J., Tchata, M., Hietet, J. P., Fouda, G., & Moneye, J. J. (2006). The value of biodiversity in the Beti Cocoa Agroforests of Southern Cameroon. In Yale University, School of Forestry and Environmental Science (Ed.), International society of tropical foresters conference on conservation and the agricultural frontier (p. 52). New Haven, CT: Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies.
   Google Scholar
• GoG. (2010). Readiness preparation proposal. Accra: Forestry Commission.
   Google Scholar
• GoG. (2011). Ghana’s second national communication to the UNFCCC. Accra: Environmental Protection Agency.
   Google Scholar
• GoG. (2014). Emission reductions program idea note. Ghana’s emission reductions program for the cocoa forest mosaic landscape. Accra: Forest Carbon Partnership Facility Carbon Fund.
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg, R., Bichier, P., & Angon, A. C. (2000). The conservation value for birds of cacao plantations with diverse planted shade in Tabasco, Mexico. Animal Conservation, 3, 105–112. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2000.tb00235.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffith, D. M. (2000). Agroforestry: A refuge for tropical biodiversity after fire. Conservation Biology, 14, 325–326. doi: 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99101.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hainmueller, J., Hiscox, M., & Tampe, M. (2011). Sustainable development for cocoa farmers in Ghana. Cambridge, MA: MIT and Harvard University.
   Google Scholar
• Hall, J. B., & Swaine, M. D. (1981). Distribution and ecology of vascular plants in a tropical rain forest. Forest vegetation in Ghana. The Hague: Dr W. Junk Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Hutcheon, W. V. (1981. The swollen shoot research project at the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana. Section V. Physiological studies, Tafo Ghana. Quarterly bulletin of cocoa statistics (pp. 67–115). London: International Cocoa Organization (ICCO).
   Google Scholar
• Isaac, M. E., Timmer, V. R., & Quashie-Sam, S. J. (2007). Shade tree effects in an 8-year-old cocoa agroforestry system: Biomass and nutrient diagnosis of Theobroma cacao by vector analysis. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 78, 155–165. doi: 10.1007/s10705-006-9081-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Läderach, P., Martinez-Valle, A., Schroth, G., & Castro, N. (2013). Predicting the future climatic suitability for cocoa farming of the world’s leading producer countries, Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. Climatic Change, 119, 841–854. doi: 10.1007/s10584-013-0774-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MLNR. (2012). Ghana investment plan. Climate investment funds forest investment program. Accra: Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Nunoo, I., Nsiah Frimpong, B., & Frimpong, F. K. (2014). Fertilizer use among cocoa farmers in Ghana: The case of Sefwi Wiawso district. International Journal of Environment, 3, 22–31. doi: 10.3126/ije.v3i1.9939
   Google Scholar
• Obiri, B. D., Bright, G. A., McDonald, M. A., Anglaaere, L. C., & Cobbina, J. (2007). Financial analysis of shaded cocoa in Ghana. Agroforestry Systems, 71, 139–149. doi: 10.1007/s10457-007-9058-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OSD, O. S. S. D. (1998). Keys to soil taxonomy. Blacksburg, VA: United States Department of Agriculture.
   Google Scholar
• Padi, B., & Owusu, G. (1998). Towards an integrated pest management for sustainable cocoa production in Ghana. Tafo: Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana.
   Google Scholar
• Purseglove, J. W. (1968). Tropical crops. Dicotyledons 1 and 2.
   Google Scholar
• Rice, R. A., & Greenberg, R. (2000). Cacao cultivation and the conservation of biological diversity. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 29, 167–173. doi: 10.1579/0044-7447-29.3.167
   Google Scholar
• Ruf, F., & Zadi, H. (1998). Cocoa: From deforestation to reforestation. Paper from workshop on shade grown cocoa held in Panama, 3/30-4/2, 1998. International conference on shade grown cacao, Smithsonian Institution, Washington.
   Google Scholar
• Sambuichi, R. H., Vidal, D. B., Piasentin, F. B., Jardim, J. G., Viana, T. G., Menezes, A. A., & Baligar, V. C. (2012). Cabruca agroforests in southern Bahia, Brazil: Tree component, management practices and tree species conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation, 21(4), 1055–1077. doi: 10.1007/s10531-012-0240-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroth, G., da Fonseca, G. A. B., Harvey, C. A., Gascon, C., Vasconcelos, H. L., & Izac, A.-M. N. (Eds). (2004). Agroforestry and biodiversity conservation in tropical landscapes. Washington: Island Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schroth, G., & Harvey, C. A. (2007). Biodiversity conservation in cocoa production landscapes: An overview. Biodiversity and Conservation, 16, 2237–2244. doi: 10.1007/s10531-007-9195-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siebert, S. F. (2002). From shade- to sun-grown perennial crops in Sulawesi, Indonesia: Implications for biodiversity conservation and soil fertility. Biodiversity and Conservation, 11, 1889–1902. doi: 10.1023/A:1020804611740
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sonwa, D., Weise, S. F., Tchatat, M., Nkongmeneck, B., Adesina, A. A., Ndoye, O., & Gockowski, J. (2001). The role of cocoa agroforestry in community and farm forestry in southern Cameroon. London: Rural Development Forestry Network. pp. 1–10.
   Google Scholar
• Vaast, P., & Somarriba, E. (2014). Trade-offs between crop intensification and ecosystem services: The role of agroforestry in cocoa cultivation. Agroforestry Systems, 88, 947–956. doi: 10.1007/s10457-014-9762-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vigneri, M. (2007). Drivers of cocoa production growth in Ghana. ODI project briefing 4.
   Google Scholar
• Wade, A. S., Asase, A., Hadley, P., Mason, J., Ofori-Frimpong, K., Preece, D., … Norris, K. (2010). Management strategies for maximizing carbon storage and tree species diversity in cocoa-growing landscapes. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 138, 324–334. doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2010.06.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar